Information Systems Security

Introduction With increased digitization of most organizational processes, there is a growing need to protect information and prevent unauthorized access to sensitive information. Many companies have fallen prey to hackers and other people who have malicious intentions. Notably, the US government, JTX and other companies around the world have had their information stolen through security breaches (Whitman, 2010, p. 455).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Information Systems Security specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Many more companies like MasterCard are operating under endless threats on their information security systems (Whitman, 2010). There is therefore a strong need to protect sensitive information from unauthorized access and more importantly, there is a strong need to prevent unauthorized physical access to secure areas. In light of the above observations, this paper seeks to identify and analyze any potent ial vulnerabilities of an information security system for a local pharmacy. The security information system for the pharmacy requires a combination of both physical and logical access controls that are meant to protect money and goods (pharmaceutical products) from theft. Tasked with the duty of identifying inherent risks associated with this business, this paper establishes physical and logical controls that mitigate the risks identified. Potential Physical Vulnerabilities and Threats Physical vulnerabilities and threats may occur in different ways. Genser (2010) observes that many organizations often overlook physical vulnerabilities and threats as important components of security breaches. Threats caused by acts of nature are the most common forms of physical vulnerabilities and threats. Indeed, like many organizations or businesses in the town, the pharmacy is subject to extreme acts of nature which can potentially lead to the loss and damage of equipment (Deswarte, 2004). The r anges of disasters that can affect the organization include lightning, earthquakes, or even tornadoes. Often, when such disasters strike, there is a resultant significant financial loss. However, within this loss perception is the threat of losing or damaging vital information. This analogy is true because information is normally stored in physical devices such as computers, compact disks and other forms of digital storage. These devices are not immune to physical vulnerabilities and damages. The ranges of environmental conditions that may cause their malfunction vary from excessive heat, too much humidity or even damages that result from water contamination. Different acts of nature can cause many of the above environmental conditions (Deswarte, 2004). Lastly, considering the pharmacy is located in a busy shopping mall, there are several environmental threats (specific to the mall), which pose different physical vulnerabilities. Certain building malfunctions such as power outages o r poor maintenance of building infrastructure, such as, water pipes and power lines may increase the pharmacy’s vulnerability to physical threats.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These vulnerabilities may lead to power outages or water leaking from the ceiling, thereby causing damage to equipment. Some of these vulnerabilities may also cause hardware failure (Deswarte, 2004). Logical Vulnerabilities and Threats That Require Consideration The most common logical vulnerabilities and threats that pose a danger to the pharmacy are caused by acts of man. These threats can be caused by errors of omission or commission, but they may equally be caused by third parties who may have an ulterior motive on the organization. For example, a member of staff may fail to include important information in the company records, thereby causing a malfunction in the data system. Similarly, a member of staff may key-in wrong figures in the company’s financial system, thereby misrepresenting the company’s true financial information. For the pharmacy, such vulnerabilities and threats exist. The ignorance of power-on passwords and the loss or malfunction of tracking devices to recover stolen equipments also contribute to the organization’s logical vulnerabilities (Walsh, 2012). Other vulnerabilities (associated with the threat of introducing malicious codes) are the lack of regular updates to the antivirus software and the easy access to administrator privileges, such that, users can easily access the system and turn off the antivirus software. Other logical vulnerabilities may also be caused by the failure to set up proper physical controls to prevent the entry of unauthorized personnel in secure business areas. For example, if all employees are allowed to access the company’s main system hub, users may gain entry into the company’s sys tems and create a security breach. The failure to secure highly confidential information through passwords may also exaggerate the level of threats that logical vulnerabilities may have on the organization (Walsh, 2012). Similarly, if the passwords are not highly confidential, unauthorized personnel may know such vital codes and use them to gain access into the company’s systems. From the list of possible threats and vulnerabilities identified above, we can see that people who pose a threat to the organization transcend the conventional perception of thieves and hackers. Employees and visitors (who enjoy organizational trust) can also pose a threat to the organization.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Information Systems Security specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Potential Impact of All Identified Physical Vulnerabilities The potential impact of all the identified physical vulnerabilities above is enormous. Perhaps, the most visible impact is financial losses that may accrue from damages to the organization’s equipment. These costs may be realized from replacing such equipments or investing in more stringent security measures to reinforce the premises to avoid any physical damage. Other financial costs may arise from lawsuits or even of the loss of vital information entrusted to the organization. For example, being an agent of the healthcare business, confidentiality is highly important for the pharmacy. However, because of the occurrence of physical threats, such information may be lost, damaged or leaked. Such an eventuality may prove to be disastrous for the business. Many organizations that often fall prey to severe physical threats experience significant setbacks in operations (financially). Some are even forced to close down business (Walsh, 2012). Another potential impact of the physical vulnerabilities identified above is poor organizational performance (Dorantes, 2006, p. 13). Any of the physical vulnerabilities identified above can cause this impact. For example, if the pharmacy is affected by damage to its physical structures, it cannot operate efficiently. Say, some of the equipments used to run the company’s operations were destroyed by a water leak (from the roof) and the organization lost records of the previous week’s operations, or a list of its most important contacts (such as suppliers). It would be extremely difficult for the organization to operate efficiently under such conditions. Comprehensively, the overall organizational performance would reduce (Dorantes, 2006). Potential Vulnerabilities That May Exist In the Documented Network The documented network is an important component to pharmacy’s operations. It contains different pieces of information which are important to the functions of the business. Meghanathan (2010) explains that the documented network may contain information such as the organization’ s IP address, or even its hardware configuration. The documented framework is prone to different security vulnerabilities. Worker incompetence is one such vulnerability because unqualified workers are likely to cause many errors to different processes in the documented framework. For example, the documented framework needs regular maintenance processes which need to be undertaken by qualified personnel.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Similarly, qualified personnel should be able to troubleshoot any problems associated with the network without much difficulty (Meghanathan, 2010). However, if the personnel employed do not know how to conduct or oversee such activities effectively, the reliability of the documented framework may be flawed. The failure to regularly update the documented framework is also another basis of vulnerability which needs to be regularly checked. The documented framework works through an ever-changing system which is informed by the changing activities in the operating environment. For example, the pharmacy engages in different activities (which change by the day) and therefore they need to be updated regularly to the documented network. The failure to update the changing variables in the security system poses a threat to the reliability or even the validity of information provided by the network (Meghanathan, 2010). Potential Impact of All Identified Logical Vulnerabilities to the Network a nd the Pharmacy The impact of the previously mentioned logical vulnerabilities stretches far and wide (throughout the organization’s operations). Many of the logical vulnerabilities identified in this paper center on human failures to protect the system. One possible impact of the logical vulnerabilities identified in this paper is time-wastage. An organization’s time is precious and most of it should be used to improve the operations of the business as opposed undertaking activities which do not profit the organization. The failure to prevent unauthorized access to administrator privileges or the failure to regularly update the antivirus software can lead to a lot of time wastages if an attack occurs. For example, if there is a security breach and vital information is stolen, an organization may spend a lot of time trying to recover information at the expense of improving the organization’s performance. Therefore, the activities of an organization can be interf ered in this regard and a lot of time wasted (Whitman, 2010). The failure to regularly update antivirus softwares can also severely affect the functionality of the pharmacy’s system (if it is not detected in good time). This oversight can also lead to the spread of new and dangerous elements to the organization’s systems including dangerous softwares, Trojan horses, or even viruses. These malicious codes may destroy or alter systems, including electronic protected health information (ePHI). These security threats are real and they may pose a severe danger to the functionality of the systems (Whitman, 2010). Finally, this paper identifies errors of omission and commission as possible elements contributing to logical vulnerabilities. Similarly, this paper identifies the lack of physical safeguards to prevent unauthorized personnel as another element contributing to logical vulnerabilities. These logical vulnerabilities may lead to the loss of trust in an organization (Wh itman, 2010). Many organizations operate on the basis of a shared trust with not only their customers but other stakeholders as well. For example, if a bank is prone to information security breaches, customers may lose confidence in it and decide to bank their money elsewhere (because of fear of loss). A pharmaceutical company also suffers the same risk. Any of the identified logical vulnerabilities can result in such an impact. However, the impact is more severe if information security breaches happen frequently. In addition, considering the fact that the nature of the pharmacy’s operations is sensitive (health-related), the impact of a security breach may be disastrous if not life-threatening. Indeed, a security compromise of the organizational operations may have a far-reaching impact on the activities of the organization and the health of everybody who depends on it (Tipton, 2011). Dealing with the Risks (Physical Vulnerabilities and Threats) So far, we have seen that act s of nature and environmental threats (which may be caused by the location of the pharmacy in the shopping mall) constitute the most notable physical vulnerabilities and threats to the pharmacy. To deal with the risks caused by acts of nature, secondary data storage devices need to be used to back up any data that may be lost because of the destruction of equipment. These secondary data storage devices should not be stored near the pharmacy because if an act of nature occurs, they may be destroyed alongside the store’s equipment. Preferably, it would be wise to use cloud computing services to store such data because it is safer this way. The destroyed equipment can later be replaced and the stored data reinstated back to the systems (Whitman, 2010). Dealing with environmental risks arising from the operations of the shopping mall is however a tricky affair. The pharmacy may not have direct control over maintenance services in the mall and therefore, it is highly vulnerable to different security threats such as loss of power or water leaks. To deal with the risk of power outages, it is important for the pharmacy to have a backup power system. Similarly, it is important for the pharmacy to undertake further renovation to its premises so that it can prevent the contamination of its equipment from water leaks and similar risks. Preferably, it would be better to locate its technology equipment in a tamper-proof room (Whitman, 2010). Dealing with the Risks (Logical Vulnerabilities and Threats) Different logical vulnerabilities and threats have been identified to pose a risk to the security of the pharmacy’s information systems. The threats identified are equipment theft, loss of information and the launch of malicious codes on the pharmacy’s data network. Consequently, we have also established that these risks pose different vulnerabilities. The vulnerabilities associated with theft or losses are the failure to use power-on passwords and the los s or malfunction of tracking devices to recover stolen equipments. The second groups of vulnerabilities (associated with the threat of malicious codes) are the lack of regular updates to the antivirus software and the easy access to administrator privileges so that users can easily access the system and turn off the antivirus software. These vulnerabilities can be managed differently. Dealing with such logical vulnerabilities and threats is difficult. However, insuring against such risks is a practical strategy that can be adopted by the pharmacy to deal with such risks. This measure may be unpopular among most organizations but it is informed by the fact that it is difficult to completely eliminate all logical vulnerabilities or threats. This measure also works to protect the pharmacy against all the logical risks and vulnerabilities identified (Whitman, 2010). Controls (Logical Vulnerabilities and Threats) Administrative To mitigate the probability of workers making errors, strict supervision should be given to employees who have direct access to the system. This way, workers would be more careful while using the system. In addition, to prevent the theft of equipment and the unauthorized access to the pharmacy’s equipments (data) a security guard should be placed at the entrance of the room having all the equipments. Preventive To protect the pharmacy’s vulnerability against unauthorized access to data, file encryption tools can be used (Walsh, 2012, p. 17). File encryption is an effective way of protecting stored data. This security control will also protect the organization against the threat of accessing data from stolen equipment. Detective To prevent the unauthorized access of users to the organization’s information, procedures for auditing users can be introduced to the pharmacy’s systems so that unauthorized users are easily detected. In fact, this security control should be launched alongside another security control that lock’s out a user’s account once it is detected that the user makes five (or so) unsuccessful log in attempts (Walsh, 2012, p. 17). To detect the theft of equipment, CCTV cameras should be installed in the premises and finally, to detect any human errors on the company’s systems, regular checkups should be done to verify that all the information is accurate. Corrective As a corrective measure against the theft of equipment, a tracking device can be installed in all equipments so that they are easily traceable. To correct errors of omission on the company’s financial books, a contingency fund should be established. Finally, to correct security breaches, the information stolen should be changed immediately so that it cannot be used against the organization. Controls (Physical Vulnerabilities and Threats) Administrative To control physical threats caused by acts of nature, it is important to have a risk management plan to minimize the effects of such risks o ccurring. Indeed, it is impossible to prevent acts of nature from occurring but the pharmacy should have a risk management plan stipulating what needs to be done in the event that such risks occur (Christoffersen, 2011). The risk management plan will change the entire business paradigm to make the pharmacy operate in a â€Å"risk-aware† way. As opposed to limiting the activities of the organization, the risk management plan will enable the organization to operate in an effective way while still being able to protect is infrastructure and property. This security control also protects the pharmacy against other physical vulnerabilities and threats caused by its environment. Preventive A preventive measure that can be taken to protect the pharmacy against the impending physical threats and vulnerabilities is to reinforce its structural framework so that it cannot be severely affected by acts of nature or the complementary environmental risks Detective Detecting the physical thre ats and vulnerabilities discussed in this study is difficult. However, the pharmacy can rely on scientific tools such as environmental forecasts (for acts of nature) and any breakages or cracks to the infrastructure of the building to pre-empt any disasters (or environmental threats) (Christoffersen, 2011). Corrective As a corrective measure, the pharmacy can have a standby team to repair any physical damages made to the building (to correct environmental threats). Similarly, the pharmacy can have a contingency fund to finance the replacement of its equipment if any damages are realized (Christoffersen, 2011). Conclusion Different risks and vulnerabilities surround the activities of the pharmacy. However, the key to deal with such risks and vulnerabilities is to pre-empt them. This paper provides a guideline of the risk controls and measures that may be taken to achieve this outcome. The main success factor for this entire process however lies in the proper implementation of these p lans. Through such plans, the pharmacy can operate in an optimum way but completely aware of the risks surrounding its operations. References Christoffersen, P. (2011). Elements of Financial Risk Management. London: Academic Press. Deswarte, Y. (2004). Security and Protection in Information Processing Systems: IFIP 18th World Computer Congress : TC11 19th International Information Security Conference, 22-27 August 2004, Toulouse, France. New York: Springer. Dorantes, C. (2006). The Impact of Information Security Breaches On Financial Performance of the Breached Firms: An Empirical Investigation. Journal of Information Technology Management, 17(2), 13-20. Genser, M. (2010). Trustwave Launches Physical Security Testing. Web. Meghanathan, N. (2010). Recent Trends in Network Security and Applications: Third International Conference, Cnsa 2010, Chennai, India, July 23-25, 2010 Proceedings. New York: Springer. Tipton, H. (2011). Information Security Management Handbook. London: CRC Press. Walsh, T. (2012). Security Risk Analysis and Management: An Overview (Updated). Web. Whitman, M. (2010). Management of Information Security. London: Cengage Learning. This essay on Information Systems Security was written and submitted by user Eli Reyes to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

English Language and Composition Essay Example

English Language and Composition Essay Example English Language and Composition Essay English Language and Composition Essay AP ® English Language and Composition 2011 Free-Response Questions About the College Board The College Board is a mission-driven not-for-profit organization that connects students to college success and opportunity. Founded in 1900, the College Board was created to expand access to higher education. Today, the membership association is made up of more than 5,900 of the world’s leading educational institutions and is dedicated to promoting excellence and equity in education. Each year, the College Board helps more than seven million students prepare for a successful transition to college through programs and services in college readiness and college success - including the SAT ® and the Advanced Placement Program ®. The organization also serves the education community through research and advocacy on behalf of students, educators and schools.  © 2011 The College Board. College Board, Advanced Placement Program, AP, AP Central, SAT and the acorn logo are registered trademarks of the College Board. Admitted Class Evaluation Service and inspiring minds are trademarks owned by the College Board. All other products and services may be trademarks of their respective owners. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. Permission to use copyrighted College Board materials may be requested online at: www. collegeboard. org/inquiry/cbpermit. html. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. AP Central is the official online home for the AP Program: apcentral. collegeboard. om. 2011 AP ® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION SECTION II Total time- 2 hours Question 1 (Suggested time- 40 minutes. This question counts for one-third of the total essay section score. ) Locavores are people who have decided to eat locally grown or produced products as much as possible. With an eye to nutrition as well as sustainability (resource use that preserves the environment), the locavore movement has become widespread over the past decade. Imagine that a community is considering organizing a locavore movement. Carefully read the following seven sources, including the introductory information for each source. Then synthesize information from at least three of the sources and incorporate it into a coherent, well-developed essay that identifies the key issues associated with the locavore movement and examines their implications for the community. Make sure that your argument is central; use the sources to illustrate and support your reasoning. Avoid merely summarizing the sources. Indicate clearly which sources you are drawing from, whether through direct quotation, paraphrase, or summary. You may cite the sources as Source A, Source B, etc. , or by using the descriptions in parentheses. Source A Source B Source C Source D Source E Source F Source G (Maiser) (Smith and MacKinnon) (McWilliams) (chart) (Gogoi) (Roberts) (cartoon)  © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -2- 2011 AP ® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Source A Maiser, Jennifer. 10 Reasons to Eat Local Food. † Eat Local Challenge. Eat Local Challenge, 8 Apr. 2006. Web. 16 Dec. 2009. The following is an article from a group Weblog written by individuals who are interested in the benefits of eating food grown and produced locally. Eating local means more for the local economy. According to a study by the New Economics Foundation in London, a dollar spent locally generates twice as much income for t he local economy. When businesses are not owned locally, money leaves the community at every transaction. Locally grown produce is fresher. While produce that is purchased in the supermarket or a big-box store has been in transit or cold-stored for days or weeks, produce that you purchase at your local farmer’s market has often been picked within 24 hours of your purchase. This freshness not only affects the taste of your food, but the nutritional value which declines with time. Local food just plain tastes better. Ever tried a tomato that was picked within 24 hours? ’Nuff said. Locally grown fruits and vegetables have longer to ripen. Because the produce will be handled less, locally grown fruit does not have to be rugged† or to stand up to the rigors of shipping. This means that you are going to be getting peaches so ripe that they fall apart as you eat them, figs that would have been smashed to bits if they were sold using traditional methods, and melons that were allowed to ripen until the last possible minute on the vine. Eating local is better for air quality and pollution than eating organic. I n a March 2005 study by the journal Food Policy, it was found that the miles that organic food often travels to our plate creates environmental damage that outweighs the benefit of buying organic. Buying local food keeps us in touch with the seasons. By eating with the seasons, we are eating foods when they are at their peak taste, are the most abundant, and the least expensive. Buying locally grown food is fodder for a wonderful story. Whether it’s the farmer who brings local apples to market or the baker who makes local bread, knowing part of the story about your food is such a powerful part of enjoying a meal. Eating local protects us from bio-terrorism. Food with less distance to travel from farm to plate has less susceptibility to harmful contamination. Local food translates to more variety. When a farmer is producing food that will not travel a long distance, will have a shorter shelf life, and does not have a high-yield demand, the farmer is free to try small crops of various fruits and vegetables that would probably never make it to a large supermarket. Supermarkets are interested in selling â€Å"Name brand† fruit: Romaine Lettuce, Red Delicious Apples, Russet Potatoes. Local producers often play with their crops from year to year, trying out Little Gem Lettuce, Senshu Apples, and Chieftain Potatoes. Supporting local providers supports responsible land development. When you buy local, you give those with local open space- farms and pastures- an economic reason to stay open and undeveloped. Jennifer Maiser, www. eatlocalchallenge. com  © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -3- 2011 AP ® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Source B Smith, Alisa, and J. B. MacKinnon. Plenty: One Man, One Woman, and a Raucous Year of Eating Locally. New York: Harmony, 2007. Print. The following passage is excerpted from a book written by the creators of the 100-Mile Diet, an experiment in eating only foods grown and produced within a 100-mile radius. Food begins to lose nutrition as soon as it is harvested. Fruit and vegetables that travel shorter distances are therefore likely to be closer to a maximum of nutrition. â€Å"Nowadays, we know a lot more about the naturally occurring substances in produce,† said [Cynthia] Sass. It’s not just vitamins and minerals, but all these phytochemicals and really powerful disease-fighting substances, and we do know that when a food never really reaches its peak ripeness, the levels of these substances never get as high. † . . . Yet when I called to confirm these facts with Marion Nestle, a professor and former chair of nutrition, food studies, and public health at New York University, she waved away the nutrition issue as a red herring. Yes, she said, our 100-mile diet- e ven in winter- was almost certainly more nutritious than what the average American was eating. That doesn’t mean it is necessary to eat locally in order to be healthy. In fact, a person making smart choices from the global megamart can easily meet all the body’s needs. â€Å"There will be nutritional differences, but they’ll be marginal,† said Nestle. â€Å"I mean, that’s not really the issue. It feels like it’s the issue- obviously fresher foods that are grown on better soils are going to have more nutrients. But people are not nutrient-deprived. We’re just not nutrient-deprived. † So would Marion Nestle, as a dietician, as one of America’s most important critics of dietary policy, advocate for local eating? Absolutely. † Why? Because she loves the taste of fresh food, she said. She loves the mystery of years when the late corn is just utterly, incredibly good, and no one can say why: it just is. She likes having farmers around, and farms, and farmland.  © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board o n the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -4- 2011 AP ® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Source C McWilliams, James E. â€Å"On My Mind: The Locavore Myth. † Forbes. com. Forbes, 15 Jul. 2009. Web. 16 Dec. 2009. The following is excerpted from an online opinion article in a business magazine. Buy local, shrink the distance food travels, save the planet. The locavore movement has captured a lot of fans. To their credit, they are highlighting the problems with industrialized food. But a lot of them are making a big mistake. By focusing on transportation, they overlook other energy-hogging factors in food production. Take lamb. A 2006 academic study (funded by the New Zealand government) discovered that it made more environmental sense for a Londoner to buy lamb shipped from New Zealand than to buy lamb raised in the U. K. This finding is counterintuitive- if you’re only counting food miles. But New Zealand lamb is raised on pastures with a small carbon footprint, whereas most English lamb is produced under intensive factory-like conditions with a big carbon footprint. This disparity overwhelms domestic lamb’s advantage in transportation energy. New Zealand lamb is not exceptional. Take a close look at water usage, fertilizer types, processing methods and packaging techniques and you discover that factors other than shipping far outweigh the energy it takes to transport food. One analysis, by Rich Pirog of the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture, showed that transportation accounts for only 11% of food’s carbon footprint. A fourth of the energy required to produce food is expended in the consumer’s kitchen. Still more energy is consumed per meal in a restaurant, since restaurants throw away most of their leftovers. Locavores argue that buying local food supports an area’s farmers and, in turn, strengthens the community. Fair enough. Left unacknowledged, however, is the fact that it also hurts farmers in other parts of the world. The U. K. buys most of its green beans from Kenya. While it’s true that the beans almost always arrive in airplanes- the form of transportation that consumes the most energy- it’s also true that a campaign to shame English consumers with small airplane stickers affixed to flown-in produce threatens the livelihood of 1. 5 million sub-Saharan farmers. Another chink in the locavores’ armor involves the way food miles are calculated. To choose a locally grown apple over an apple trucked in from across the country might seem easy. But this decision ignores economies of scale. To take an extreme example, a shipper sending a truck with 2,000 apples over 2,000 miles would consume the same amount of fuel per apple as a local farmer who takes a pickup 50 miles to sell 50 apples at his stall at the green market. The critical measure here is not food miles but apples per gallon. The one big problem with thinking beyond food miles is that it’s hard to get the information you need. Ethically concerned consumers know very little about processing practices, water availability, packaging waste and fertilizer application. This is an opportunity for watchdog groups. They should make life-cycle carbon counts available to shoppers. Reprinted by Permission of Forbes Media LLC  © 2010  © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -5- 2011 AP ® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Source D Loder, Natasha, Elizabeth Finkel, Craig Meisner, and Pamela Ronald. â€Å"The Problem of What to Eat. † Conservation Magazine. The Society for Conservation Biology, July-Sept. 2008. Web. 16 Dec. 2009. The following chart is excerpted from an online article in an environmental magazine.  © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -6- 2011 AP ® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Source E Gogoi, Pallavi. â€Å"The Rise of the ‘Locavore’: How the Strengthening Local Food Movement in Towns Across the U. S. Is Reshaping Farms and Food Retailing. † Bloomberg Businessweek. Bloomberg, 20 May 2008. Web. 17 Dec. 2009. The following is excerpted from an online article in a business magazine. The rise of farmers’ markets- in city centers, college towns, and rural squares- is testament to a dramatic shift in American tastes. Consumers increasingly are seeking out the flavors of fresh, vine-ripened foods grown on local farms rather than those trucked to supermarkets from faraway lands. â€Å"This is not a fringe foodie culture,† says [Anthony] Flaccavento. â€Å"These are ordinary, middle-income folks who have become really engaged in food and really care about where their food comes from. † It’s a movement that is gradually reshaping the business of growing and supplying food to Americans. The local food movement has already accomplished something that almost no one would have thought possible a few years back: a revival of small farms. After declining for more than a century, the number of small farms has increased 20% in the past six years, to 1. 2 million, according to the Agriculture Dept. . . . The impact of â€Å"locavores† (as local-food proponents are known) even shows up in that Washington salute every five years to factory farming, the Farm Bill. The latest version passed both houses in Congress in early May and was sent on May 20 to President George W. Bush’s desk for signing. Bush has threatened to veto the bill, but it passed with enough votes to sustain an override. Predictably, the overwhelming bulk of its $290 billion would still go to powerful agribusiness interests in the form of subsidies for growing corn, soybeans, and cotton. But $2. 3 billion was set aside this year for specialty crops, such as the eggplants, strawberries, or salad greens that are grown by exactly these small, mostly organic farmers. That’s a big bump-up from the $100 million that was earmarked for such things in the previous legislation. Small farmers will be able to get up to 75% of their organic certification costs reimbursed, and some of them can obtain crop insurance. There’s money for research into organic foods, and to promote farmers’ markets. Senator Tom Harkin (D-Iowa) said the bill â€Å"invests in the health and nutrition of American children . . . by expanding their access to farmer’s markets and organic produce. † Reprinted from the May 20, 2008 issue of Bloomberg BusinessWeek by special permission, copyright  © 2008 by Bloomberg L. P.  © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. ollegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -7- 2011 AP ® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Source F Roberts, Paul. The End of Food. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2008. Print. The following is excerpted from a book about the food industry. [T]he move toward local food, for all its trendiness (the more adamant adherents, known as â€Å"localvore s,† strive to buy products that have traveled the least â€Å"food miles†), highlights one of the problematic pieces of the modern food economy: the increasing reliance on foods shipped halfway round the world. Because long-distance food shipments promote profligate fuel use and the exploitation of cheap labor (which compensates for the profligate fuel use), shifting back to a more locally sourced food economy is often touted as a fairly straightforward way to cut externalities, restore some measure of equity between producers and consumers, and put the food economy on a more sustainable footing. Such a shift would bring back diversity to land that has been all but destroyed by chemical-intensive mono-cropping, provide much-needed jobs at a local level, and help to rebuild community,† argues the UK-based International Society for Ecology and Culture, one of the leading lights in the localvore movement. â€Å"Moreover, it would allow farmers to make a decent living while giving consumers access to healthy, fresh food at affordable prices. † While localvorism sounds superb in theory, it is proving quite difficult in practice. To begin with, there are dozens of different definitions as to what local is, with some advocates arguing for political boundaries (as in Texas-grown, for example), others using quasi-geographic terms like food sheds, and still others laying out somewhat arbitrarily drawn food circles with radii of 100 or 150 or 500 miles. Further, whereas some areas might find it fairly easy to eat locally (in Washington State, for example, I’m less than fifty miles from industrial quantities of fresh produce, corn, wheat, beef, and milk), people in other parts of the country and the world would have to look farther afield. And what counts as local? Does food need to be purchased directly from the producer? Does it still count when it’s distributed through a mass marketer, as with Wal-Mart’s Salute to America’s Farmer program, which is now periodically showcasing local growers? The larger problem is that although decentralized food systems function well in decentralized societies- like the United States was a century ago, or like many developing nations still are- they’re a poor fit in modern urbanized societies. The same economic forces that helped food production become centralized and regionalized did the same thing to our population: in the United States, 80 percent of us live in large, densely populated urban areas, usually on the coast, and typically hundreds of miles, often thousands of miles, from the major centers of food production.  © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -8- 2011 AP ® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Source G Hallatt, Alex. â€Å"Arctic Circle. † Comic strip. King Features Syndicate, Inc. 1 Sept. 2008. Web. 12 July 2009. The following is a cartoon from an environmentally themed comic strip. ARCTIC CIRCLE  © 2008 MACNELLY. DISTRIBUTED BY KING FEATURES SYNDICATE  © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -9- 2011 AP ® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Question 2 (Suggested time- 40 minutes. This question counts for one-third of the total essay section score. ) Florence Kelley (1859-1932) was a United States social worker and reformer who fought successfully for child labor laws and improved conditions for working women. She delivered the following speech before the convention of the National American Woman Suffrage Association in Philadelphia on July 22, 1905. Read the speech carefully. Then write an essay in which you analyze the rhetorical strategies Kelley uses to convey her message about child labor to her audience. Support your analysis with specific references to the text. We have, in this country, two million children under the age of sixteen years who are earning their bread. They vary in age from six and seven years (in the cotton mills of Georgia) and eight, nine and ten years (in the coal-breakers of Pennsylvania), to fourteen, fifteen and sixteen years in more enlightened states. No other portion of the wage earning class increased so rapidly from decade to decade as the young girls from fourteen to twenty years. Men increase, women increase, youth increase, boys increase in the ranks of the breadwinners; but no contingent so doubles from census period to census period (both by percent and by count of heads), as does the contingent of girls between twelve and twenty years of age. They are in commerce, in offices, in manufacturing. Tonight while we sleep, several thousand little girls will be working in textile mills, all the night through, in the deafening noise of the spindles and the looms spinning and weaving cotton and wool, silks and ribbons for us to buy. In Alabama the law provides that a child under sixteen years of age shall not work in a cotton mill at night longer than eight hours, and Alabama does better in this respect than any other southern state. North and South Carolina and Georgia place no restriction upon the work of children at night; and while we sleep little white girls will be working tonight in the mills in those states, working eleven hours at night. In Georgia there is no restriction whatever! A girl of six or seven years, just tall enough to reach the bobbins, may work eleven hours by day or by night. And they will do so tonight, while we sleep. Nor is it only in the South that these things occur. Alabama does better than New Jersey. For Alabama limits the children’s work at night to eight hours, while New Jersey permits it all night long. Last year New Jersey took a long backward step. A good law was repealed which had required women and [children] to stop work at six in the evening and at noon on Friday. Now, therefore, in New Jersey, boys and girls, after their 14th birthday, enjoy the pitiful privilege of working all night long. In Pennsylvania, until last May it was lawful for children, 13 years of age, to work twelve hours at night. A little girl, on her thirteenth birthday, could start away from her home at half past five in the afternoon, carrying her pail of midnight luncheon as happier people carry their midday luncheon, and could work in the mill from six at night until six in the morning, without violating any law of the Commonwealth. If the mothers and the teachers in Georgia could vote, would the Georgia Legislature have refused at every session for the last three years to stop the work in the mills of children under twelve years of age? Would the New Jersey Legislature have passed that shameful repeal bill enabling girls of fourteen years to work all night, if the mothers in New Jersey were enfranchised? Until the mothers in the great industrial states are enfranchised, we shall none of us be able to free our consciences from participation in this great evil. No one in this room tonight can feel free from such participation. The children make our shoes in the shoe factories; they knit our stockings, our knitted underwear in the knitting factories. They spin and weave our cotton underwear in the cotton mills. Children braid straw for our hats, they spin and weave the silk and velvet wherewith we trim our hats. They stamp buckles and metal ornaments of all kinds, as well as pins and hat-pins. Under the sweating system, tiny children make artificial flowers and neckwear for us to buy. They carry bundles of garments from the factories to the tenements, little beasts of burden, robbed of school life that they may work for us. We do not wish this. We prefer to have our work done by men and women. But we are almost powerless. Not wholly powerless, however, are citizens who enjoy the right of petition. For myself, I Line 5 45 50 10 55 15 60 20 65 25 70 30 75 35 80 40  © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -10- 2011 AP ® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS shall use this power in every possible way until the right to the ballot is granted, and then I shall continue to use both. What can we do to free our consciences? There is one line of action by which we can do much. We can enlist the workingmen on behalf of our enfranchisement just in proportion as we strive with them to free the children. No labor organization in this country ever fails to respond to an appeal for help in the freeing of the children. For the sake of the children, for the Republic in which these children will vote after we are dead, and for the sake of our cause, we should enlist the workingmen voters, with us, in this task of freeing the children from toil! 85 90 95  © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -11- 2011 AP ® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Question 3 (Suggested time- 40 minutes. This question counts for one-third of the total essay section score. ) The following passage is from Rights of Man, a book written by the pamphleteer Thomas Paine in 1791. Born in England, Paine was an intellectual, a revolutionary, and a supporter of American independence from England. Read the passage carefully. Then write an essay that examines the extent to which Paine’s characterization of America holds true today. Use appropriate evidence to support your argument. If there is a country in the world, where concord, according to common calculation, would be least expected, it is America. Made up, as it is, of people from different nations, accustomed to different forms and habits of government, speaking different languages, and more different in their modes of worship, it would appear that the union of such a people was impracticable; but by the simple operation of constructing government on the principles of society and the rights of man, every difficulty retires, and all the parts are brought into ordial unison. There, the poor are not oppressed, the rich are not privileged. . . . Their taxes are few, because their government is just; and as there is nothing to render them wretched, there is nothing to engender riots and tumults. STOP END OF EXAM  © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. -12-

Bermuda Triangle

Have you ever wondered what The Bermuda Triangle is about and why it is a great mystery? Then my speech on the Bermuda triangle will help you understand more about this strange thing. The Bermuda triangle is a strange and mysterious region in the south West Atlantic ocean where people, ships, boats and air craft flying over it have been sucked in to its stormy waters or disappeared. The triangle is located in the islands of Bermuda, Miami, Florida and Puerto Rico and it is Also known as the devil’s triangle and covering an area of about 500000 miles. The need to undertake findings on the Bermuda triangle arose from what many journalists and other writers described the area to have experienced an extraordinarily high number of disappearances of ships, airplanes and people compared to any other region in the sea or ocean. The first notable sources of strange experiences in the region can be traced back to the 15th century. In one of his many voyages while in this region in 1492, Christopher Columbus reported cases of strange fire balls crushing into the ocean and compass malfunctions. Some have approximated the figures of disappearances in the last one hundred years as one hundred ships and planes each, and over a thousand people. Flight 19 Among the most notable cases of disappearances documented is â€Å"Flight 19†. On December 5th 1945, five fighter jets left Fort Lauderdale for a mission drill in the area defined by the triangle. The commander of the operation Charles Taylor was an experienced pilot although the other pilots were still students under his command. About one and half hours after take off, Taylor reported to the air traffic controllers that his compass was not functioning. The last faint radio signals to be heard indicated Taylor was in charge and flying farther away from the base in the wrong direction. One search operation plane was also lost during the search for flight 19. The remains of Flight 19 have not been spotted to date. Bermuda Triangle is an imaginary Theory In examining the above mentioned case of Flight 19, there were many indicators that Bermuda Triangle was an imaginary belief. All the documented evidence showed that Taylor had lost his way in deep sea and refused to control the the plane to a fellow pilot. A report was received that Flight 19 disappeared under mysterious circumstances. Columbus among many others are said to have sighted lights in the sky that are associated with UFOs. One of the claims about this triangle is that, UFOs are responsible for accidents and disappearances. There is no evidence to suggest that lights are not from flying saucers and as such must be from UFOs. Similarly, the source of light can be one or many things: a meteor, lightning or earthquake. Additionally, in times of Columbus tracing the direction depended on the sighting of North star only visible at dusk. During all those other hours at sea, one could get lost over any number of degrees in the compass in any direction. Conclusion In everyday life, such myths are a common place. Many people have spent much valuable time and resources in getting involved to these widely accepted â€Å"facts† in life. For instance, such beliefs could lead to potentially harmful behavior in case of sciences associated with health and medical practices. Examining the correctness of data and all the possible explanations to a phenomenon could be a great asset towards making important conclusions and decisions in life. Therefore the Bermuda triangle is case that has not yet been solved.

Sources of finance For Expansion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sources of finance For Expansion - Essay Example The most intriguing phenomena associated with IPOs are the poor performance in the long run. Generally the period of evaluation is from one to three years. Take any of the threshold IPOs that are sure to under perform. Researches have shown that this underperformance will last up to three to five years. Ritter and welsh (1992) clearly shown that there is 23.4 % for a three year buy and hold strategy. There are many explanations presented why IPO under perform when compared to any threshold. After beginning of the company its shares are sold to the public to accumulate the initial capital for the company. To purchase the necessary equipment and raw material the company needs this amount. Without the initial capital no company can begin their basic operations. The reason behind selling shares to the general public is, as the public constitute a large population who can generate huge amount of capital and they also constitute a large context of population who are also the consumers for the products being manufactured and sold by this company. The reason behind general public buying the shares of the companies are that the returns gives by the company on the shares purchased is proportional to the profit of the company. If the company is making huge profits then a part of the profit is divided and equally distributed to the shareholders with respect to there purchased quantity. Limited equi Rajinder Deane October 13, 2006 Page 3 Limited equity financing is used by most of the small or growth stage businesses. Whereas in debt financing, funds pour in from different quarters like from friends, relatives, etc. Venture capitalists are the most common source of equity funding. Venture capitalists may be institutional risk takers, financial institutions, wealthy persons, etc. and most of them specialize in industries. Commercial finance companies, financial institutions, banks, savings and loans, Lloyds Bank small business, etc. are some of the sources for debt financing. Because of their positive impact on the whole economy local and state government encourage the growth of the small companies. In debt financing additional funds comes from friends, family, relatives, and industry colleagues, etc when capital investment is smaller. When the equity to debt ratio of the firm is high then debt financing should be taken. If the proportion of the debt to equity ratio of the firm is high then it is advised that the owners should increase their equity investment, that way they cannot jeopardize firm's survival. Sincerely, Jack Stroth References 4hb.com. What is the Business Letter Format Retrieved October 12 2006, .

Referring to academic theory and drawing on examples of practice Essay

Referring to academic theory and drawing on examples of practice provide a detailed discussion on Learning and and demonstrate how it relate to the context of entrepreneurship - Essay Example This paper will explain the theory based approaches to seek clarity of custom subject-object relation. The paper will also exhibit practical applications of agnosticism and a list of differences. The narrative based theory presents a structure where a given business individual’s perception is the entrepreneurship role. The theory’s practical application justifies that an individual’s perception transforms to a reality. Another approach of the same theory reveals that given experience and expertise is significant for identifying opportunities within a community to form ventures of beneficial influence. The third application focuses on the exchange of labor, ideologies and capital investments among individuals (Scheer, 2009). Other reflective entrepreneur fields view the learning process as platform to exercise individual learning to seize opportunity and employ the same for critical decision-making. The collective learning is also a fundamental pillar of entrepreneur learning. This involves generating certain behaviors to sensitize a given entrepreneur who later incorporates available resources within a network system. The general view is to implement ski lls and expertise within disposal to improve a business entity. Entrepreneur learning is a difficult field without embracing entrepreneurial identity. The area of study requires pragmatic engagements from the theoretical approach. This concept entails establishing businesses for the applicable concepts. Entrepreneur learning equips individuals by use of tactical approaches to sustain different organization or business entities. Entrepreneur learning requires investigational or reflective phases to build an individual’s attitude for effective change and management within a business premise. Team working emerges as a major pillar to incorporating entrepreneur pillars. The overall approach to entrepreneur learning originates from the individual perspective,

Cause and Effect Essay Essay Example for Free

Cause and Effect Essay Essay In Act Four Scene One Friar Lawrence explains the plan to Juliet, â€Å" Take thou this vial, being then in bed, And this distilled liquor drink thou off, When presently through all thy veins shall run A cold and drowsy humor, for no pulse Shall keep his native progress, but surcease. No warmth, no breath shall testify thou livest. The roses in thy lips and cheeks shall fade To paly ashes, thy eyes windows fall Like death when he shuts up the day of life. Each part, deprived of supple government, Shall, stiff and stark and cold, appear like death. And in this borrowed likeness of shrunk death Thou shalt continue two and forty hours,And then awake as from a pleasant sleep. Now, when the bridegroom in the morning comes To rouse thee from thy bed, there art thou dead. Then, as the manner of our country is, In thy best robes uncovered on the bier Thou shalt be borne to that same ancient vault Where all the kindred of the Capulets lie. In the meantime, against thou shalt awake, Shall Romeo by my letters know our drift,And hither shall he come, and he and I Will watch thy waking, and that very night Shall Romeo bear thee hence to Mantua. In Act Four Scene One Friar Lawrence explains the plan to Juliet, â€Å" Take thou this vial, being then in bed, And this distilled liquor drink thou off, When presently through all thy veins shall run A cold and drowsy humor, for no pulse Shall keep his native progress, but surcease. No warmth, no breath shall testify thou livest. The roses in thy lips and cheeks shall fade To paly ashes, thy eyes windows fall Like death when he shuts up the day of life. Each part, deprived of supple government, Shall, stiff and stark and cold, appear like death. And in this borrowed likeness of shrunk death Thou shalt continue two and forty hours,And then awake as from a pleasant sleep. Now, when the bridegroom in the morning comes To rouse thee from thy bed, there art thou dead. Then, as the manner of our country is, In thy best robes uncovered on the bier Thou shalt be borne to that same ancient vault Where all the kindred of the Capulets lie. In the meantime, against thou shalt awake, Shall Romeo by my letters know our drift,And hither shall he come, and he and I Will watch thy waking, and that very night Shall Romeo bear thee hence to Mantua. †

Indecision, Hesitation and Delay in Shakespeares Hamlet Essay

The Indecisiveness and Hesitation of Hamlet  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   In the Shakespearean drama Hamlet considerable literary critical comment swirls about the subject of the hero’s hesitation or indecision in the prayer scene. Is it weakness? Is it representative of a mental condition? Are there other incidences of hesitation? Let us explore the subject in this essay and interpret the key scene in light of other scenes, with input from literary critics.    David Bevington, in the Introduction to Twentieth Century Interpretations of Hamlet, eliminates some possible reasons for Hamlet’s hesitation in killing Claudius during the prayer scene:    Several limits can be placed upon the search for an explanation of Hamlet’s apparent hesitation to avenge. He is not ineffectual under ordinary circumstances. Elizabethan theories of melancholy did not suppose the sufferer to be made necessarily inactive. Hamlet has a deserved reputation in Denmark for manliness and princely demeanor. He keeps up his fencing practice and will â€Å"win at the odds† against Laertes. He threatens with death those who would restrain him from speaking with the ghost – even his friend Horatio – and stabs the concealed Polonius unflinchingly. On the sea voyage to England he boards a pirate ship single-handed in the grapple, after having arranged without remorse for the deaths of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. In light of these deeds, Hamlet’s self-accusations are signs of burning impatience in one who would surely act if he could. (5-6)    Harry Levin comments on Hamlet’s uncharacteristic hesitation in dispatching the king, in the General Introduction to The Riverside Shakespeare:    Comparably, Hamlet has been taken to task – or, perhaps more often, se... ...ilm, Television and Audio Performance. Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. P., 1988.    Levin, Harry. General Introduction. The Riverside Shakespeare. Ed. G. Blakemore Evans. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1974.    Nevo, Ruth. â€Å"Acts III and IV: Problems of Text and Staging.† Modern Critical Interpretations: Hamlet. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1986. Rpt. from Tragic Form in Shakespeare. N.p.: Princeton University Press, 1972.    Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 1995. http://www.chemicool.com/Shakespeare/hamlet/full.html    West, Rebecca. â€Å"A Court and World Infected by the Disease of Corruption.† Readings on Hamlet. Ed. Don Nardo. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1999. Rpt. from The Court and the Castle. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1957.

Multiple Sclerosis Diseases

Multiple Sclerosis is a disease that bewilders us all.. There is no known cause. We do know that MS (multiple sclerosis) is a disease where the myelin breaks down and is replaced by scar tissue. The demyelination can slow down or block the flow of signals to and from the central nervous system to the rest of the body, impairing such functions as vision, strength, and coordination. 1 While we do know what MS is we still don't know why, where and when people contract the disease. It has been proven that MS generally appears between the ages of twenty to forty and it strikes women at more than twice the ratio it strikes men. Statistics have also shown that the disease strikes the middle and upper class more than the lower class and poor. Worldwide research shows that MS has a broad geographical distribution. It has long established that MS is more prominent in colder regions and rare in tropical areas. Maine being a colder climate has shown some of the highest rates of MS. 2 There is evidence of a slight increase in MS among first degree relatives–parents, siblings, and children. It is also suspected that the same family members may inherent a genetic susceptibility to MS. While it is possible to inherit a genetic susceptibility to MS, it is not possible to inherit the disease. And even people who have all the necessary genes don't necessarily get MS. The disease, experts believe, must be triggered by environmental factors. So MS is not considered a hereditary disease. 3 Until the definite cause of Ms is proved the treatment cannot be truly scientific. But there are treatments that are effective in dealing with symptoms. For instance, there are the common sense treatments that everyone, with or without an illness, should treat themselves with, which are: A healthy diet, exercise, sufficient amount of rest and to live your life as you would normally. There are also lots of drugs that treat many of the different symptoms. Since there are so many symptoms and treatments, I will only list a few: Treatments that increase the blood flow, that decrease blood clotting, treatments for chemical eccess or deficiency, treatments to prevent infection and treatments for the immune system. Treatment and rehabilitation have also been joined together. Weakness is one of the major symptoms of Ms and can be treated with physical therapy and strengthening exercises. One of the best exercises for reducing weakness in the limbs is hydrotherapy. Hydrotherapy is done in the water. Hydrotherapy exercises use the benefits of buoyancy. Another way to eliminate weakness is to stay off a weak limb. Overall, by recognizing limits and using common sense, weakness can be greatly diminished. 4 Spasticity, another MS symptom, is most effectively treated with physical therapy. Cold is an excellent temporary measure for relaxing the spastic limb. Hydrotherapy is, again, the most effective exercise for relief, combining stretching and cool temperatures. There are also many medications for spasticity, such as Baclofen, Dantrollene, and Diazepam. Relaxation techniques such as yoga, transcendental meditation, biofeedback, have been successful with spasticity as well. 5 Some MS patients might have mild to sever balance trouble. In mild cases, the person can learn how to compensate easily by standing and walking with a little wider base and taking short steps rather than long strides. When balance trouble is a little more severe, a four-pronged cane, crutches or a walker may be necessary. Someone with MS could have visual problems. The problem varies from decreased acuity, blurred or cloudy vision, and double vision. The treatment depends on the stage of the problem. If it is a new part of an attack, visual loss responds to steroids. If it is a persistent problem, glasses or special lenses might be the best treatment. 7 Bladder problems are unfortunately not uncommon with MS. The most common are frequency and urgency. There are three good medications that relieve symptoms when they are present for more than a week or two: Pro-Banthine, Ditropan and Tofranil. Iif bladder problems do not respond to medication, a complete bladder training problem may be prescribed. 7 The treatments and medications used ten years ago are still effective and still being used but there are medical breakthroughs being announced regularly. In October of 1994, there was a medical breakthrough. Researchers found out that an anticancer drug stops the most crippling form of MS. The drug is Cladribine and the results are dramatic. A study was done on 49 patients with progressive chronic MS, which effects about 53,000 Americans and is the most severe form of MS. Half of the patients were given the drug and the other half were given a placebo. For the patients that were given Cladribine the spread of MS stopped for all patients and some improved. Their legs no longer shook and they no longer needed canes or braces. Dr. Ernest Beutler stated: â€Å"It's the only agent that has clearly been shown to stop the progression of the disease. â€Å"8 Another treatment that is not new or a medical breakthrough but is very effective and gaining popularity with MS patients is Apitherapy, which is the scientific name for the bee venom that is used by MS patients. Doctors aren't exactly sure why the bee venom is effective. They know that the venom contains two powerful anti-inflammatory agents, melittin and adolapin which appear to fight the neural sheath inflammation itself. One women with MS is quoted after two months of bee venom treatments: â€Å"My hearing was totally back and I was out of the wheelchair and walking with a cane†. Another example was a young women who had bladder problems. After her venom treatments she hasn't wet the bed since she first contracted MS. Others have noticed more balance, more energy and less numbness in there legs and feet. Overall, whether it's medication, exercise, rehabilitation, the most important factor in the treatment of this disease is to have a positive attitude, hope for the future, and a desire to live your life as you normally would from day to day. Socially MS can be just as difficult to fight as it is physically. Dating, marriage, children, careers, parents and friends can be difficult barriers emotionally. dating is hard for anyone regardless of sex, age, appearance or status in life. if your MS has visual symptoms that are apparent to others. its best to be open right away. You should go about this in whatever way is most comfortable to you. for people with mild or invisible MS, disclosure to a dating can and probably should wait. Like any other person some relationships work out and some don't . The best advice is to date, explore new relationships and don't be afraid to fall in love. 2 MS will have an impact on your marriage. Management of Ms requires patience and understanding. When your MS is in remission there may be no problem to face. When you're in a new attack, your mate need to take over shopping, cooking, mowing, and caring for the children if any. the most patience and understandings comes to anned when a person with MS becomes disabled. this is the real test of love for most couples. this is when you should really take notice of what kind of problems you had before. Don't expect your partner to feel guilty. if the marriage was meant to work it will work. If you have MS your children have probably already figured out that something is wrong before you tell them. The best approach is to be honest with your children. with each knew attack there needs to be communication. Parents with MS should watch their children for any emotional difficulties they may be having. Keeping your friends should not be a problem. Good reins stick by your side through everything. Your friends should feel comfortable with you just as you should feel comfortable with them. With making new friends it should be just the same as you made them before. You should eventually tell them about MS but it can wait until both feel comfortable with talking about it. More often it is harder for someone with MS just to hang on to a job. unfortunately it has little to do with their ability and more to do with discrimination. But today there are laws and regulations so Know one with any disability should be fired or feel thy have to quit. 2 Job hunting with Ms is a whole different issue. if you have viable symptoms, you are going to have to address your situation up front . If you have an interview you may want to be up front about it on the phone. The main thing is if you feel comfortable with yourself others will to. You should always emphasize that you are a hard worker. And be aware of discrimination because it happens all the time and it is illegal. Overall i personally believe that Ms should not get in the way of your social life. If you have a good personality you should be able to make friends and if you are a hard worker there is no reason why you should not be able to work. A positive way of thinking will definitely get you on your way. After MS patients have dealt with physical therapy, doctors, treatments and medications you may ask yourself where would therapeutic recreation come into the picture? The answer to that would depend on the person and what type of lifestyle and goals they had for themselves. today's society is pushing everyone to physically and emotionally fit with activities such as mountain biking, swimming skiing, and walking. The reason these and many other activates are so popular is because its fun, its a hobby, receives stress and its exercise whereas riding a stationary bike is exercise but you don't hear to many people say its their hobby or its a fun pastime. TR(therapeutic recreation) come into place with people with MS and other mental and physical disabilities because their is a need for them to fulfill their goals and expectations like everyone else. Since they have a special need a TR program or specialist can help them fulfill that need. People with MS should have the maximum participation with the fewest adaptations. Just like any other part of their life style they should develop a leisure lifestyle that is normal a possible. I think it is important for Ms patients to choose their own activates and set their own goals, within reason.! Lastly, I feel sensitive to anyone that contracts a disease, such as AIDS, or cancer. Its an awful thing if someone was an IV drug user and than they contacted the Aids Virus or if some one smoked for thirty years and they were diagnosed with lung cancer. I think one of the hardest things about Ms is that you can be healthy or not healthy know one in your family could have it and then one day you show symptoms. Physiologically Yes that would be a difficult thing to deal with. But it is a disease that is striking millions of people and after doing research I believe the positive attitude and to go on with your normal way of living is the best psychological cure. It doesn't stop you from living, having a job, a family, hobbies, or friends. Overall when they say MS is a mystery disease i would have to agree. I think there is definite hope for a cure for the future. We have medical breakthroughs and have several clues to the disease.

Management: Organizational Behavior Study Guide

MGT 341 Exam II Study Guide 1. Power (Article and Book) a. Meaning of Power – â€Å"The ability to influence various outcomes: or The ability to â€Å"make things happen† or â€Å"get things done† i. Individuals/Groups are presumed to have power based on the following factors: * Ability to cope with Uncertainty * Substitutability – the lower the substitutability the greater the power. * Organizational Centrality – the more central a person/group is to an organization; the greater the power. Role and Task Interdependence – if the activities of a person/group depend on the activities of another person/group -> the latter is considered to have greater control or power. b. Relationship of Power to Authority – Power and Authority are closely related to the concept of leadership. ii. Authority – Situations in which a person/group has been formally granted a leadership position. iii. Legitimate Power – formerly sanctioned by or ganization (Contractual) or informally supported by individual/group (Consensual). iv.Executive / Managerial Power – directed towards creating and maintaining an active organization – ideal of transforming the organization to it’s highest potential. c. Appointed vs. Emergent Leaders (Formal vs. Informal) d. Types of Power: Yellow = Position Power Red = Personal Power Positional Power – Organization * Appointed leaders / formal power – **Most Common Form of Power** * Easily controlled by the organization. * Attributed to the Position rather than the individual. * Appointed from upper level management. 1.Reward Power – The extent to which a person controls rewards another person values (Can give people things they want; satisfy needs). 2. Legitimate Power – Power granted by virtue of one’s position. 3. Coercive Power – The extent to which a person can punish or physically/psychologically harm someone else (do bad things to a person). Personal Power – Personal/Individual – Emergent (i. e. as the individual becomes acclimated to the environment they may â€Å"emerge† professionally or when there is a group that does not have an apparent leader figure, one will â€Å"emerge† naturally. Attributed to the Individual rather than the organization. * Not easily influenced by the organization. * Influence is â€Å"earned† or gained after â€Å"proving ones self. † Expert Power – The extent to which a person controls rewards another person values. (Can give people things they want; satisfy needs). 1. Referent Power – Exists when one person wants to be like someone else r imitates someone else. (based on admiration and respect). e. Situational Variables that can provide power. v. Ability to cope with uncertainty vi.Substitutability – The extent to which someone else in the organization can â€Å"Substitute† for someone else. (The lower the su bstitutability the greater the power). vii. Organizational Centrality – the more central a person is to the task or processes of the organization, the greater the power. viii. Role and Take Interdependence – If the activities of a person or group are dependent on that of another person/group > the latter has the power. f. Leadership Motive Syndrome – The need for power must be greater than the need for affiliation.Must refrain from being perceived as Impulsive, Coercive, or Manipulative. g. Acceptance Theory – manager's authority is derived from subordinates' acceptance, instead of the hierarchical power structure of the organization h. Power Gap – Difference between formal positional power granted and the actual power required to accomplish goals. ix. How to â€Å"Fill the Gap† > * Acquiring Information & Ideas * Assess Who has Power * Good Relationships * Interpersonal Skills * Networks (power building tool) * Create Valued Agendas Image & Track Record 2. Leadership: i. Trait Approaches: x. Focus –Early approaches focused on those personal characteristics and attributes- physical, mental, and cultural. The research is often termed the â€Å"Great Person† theory of leadership (it was assumed leaders were different from average people based on personality and physical characteristics) â€Å"leaders are born, not made†. 5 personal characteristics seemed related to effective leadership: intelligence, dominance, self-confidence, high levels of energy and activity, and task-relevant knowledge. i. Problems – Relationship between these characteristics and evidence of effective leadership is not particularly strong. In the case of each characteristic, there have been significant studies that have either not shown any relationship with effective leadership or found a negative relationship. Thus, provides an incomplete picture of leadership xii. Reemergence of Interest – reemerged as a promisi ng research area, especially in terms of examining specific traits related to the effectiveness/success in different organizational settings.Studies from the 80’s and 90’s suggest there are a number of traits that do contribute to effective leadership: Drive, leadership motivation, honesty and integrity, self-confidence, resonance, cognitive ability and knowledge of the business. Alone, these do not guarantee leadership success, but they can help for success. xiii. Key Dimensions for â€Å"Magic† or Charismatic Leadership – 3 key dimensions are envisioning, energizing and enabling. â€Å"Natural Leaders†, energize-inspire, envisioning-create & communicate image, enabling- enable other people * Linking to Results – Finding the correct quality that gives you positive results.The results should be balanced, strategic, lasting, and selfless. This link between attributes and results enriches our understanding of the relationship between leader tr aits and leadership effectiveness j. Behavioral Approaches: Focused on the various behavioral patterns or styles used by different leaders and the functions fulfilled by these individuals. xiv. Democratic – Leading through group input and decision making. xv. Autocratic – Leading by command xvi. Laissez-faire-Leading through minimal participation by the leader and allowance of total group freedom xvii. University of Michigan Studies – Research into behavioral aspects of leadership. Were concerned with two different leader orientations: one toward employees and the other toward production. The results suggested that a strong orientation to production resembled the autocratic leadership style, while a strong employee orientation was indicative of the democratic leadership style. xviii. *Ohio State Studies – Similar to Michigan studies. Two basic factors derived: initiating structure and consideration for others.See pages 214-215 xix. *Managerial Grid > Conc ern for people and production, uses 5 sections on grid, want managers to be a 9,9. Most popular Concern for People Concern for People Concern for Results (1,1) = LCP & LCR, (1,9) = HFP & LCR, (9,9) = HCP & HCR, (9,1) = HCR & LCP. 1,9| | 9,9| | 5,5| | | | | 1,1| | 9,1| * Based on a â€Å"Concern for People† & â€Å" Concern for Production† * Includes Motivation xx. Likert’s Linking Pin & System 4 ideas Likert found that the Traditional View of management (close supervision/high structure) only PARTLY explained the roles of managers. * Believed that managers are members of (2) different workgroups 1. Person is responsible FOR. > Subordinates 2. Person is responsible TO (Traditional View of Supervision). > Leaders * Power comes from the ability to excerpt power Upward and Lateral (Peer Managers) * (2) Elements must be looked at: i. Task Component ii. Human Component * Approach consists of Integrated Workgroups. * Managers are members of multiple Workgroups. xi. Sys tem 4- (participative)- supervisors trust their subordinates and goal setting and decision making are collaborative activities. k. Contingency Approaches – This perspective suggests that there is no â€Å"one best way† to lead in all situations; rather, the most effective style of leadership is contingent or dependent on the situation. Contingency theories combine the trait approach and the behavioral /functional theories to suggest the most effective leaders are those individuals who can adapt their styles to the demands of a situation, group, or values xxii.Situational Leadership – (Life-Cycle Theory of Leadership) pg 225 xxiii. Path-Goal Model – The leader affects subordinates’ performance by clarifying the behaviors (paths) that will lead to desired rewards (goals). Types of leader behaviors: directive, supportive, participative, achievement-oriented. Situational factor which influence how leader behavior relates to subordinate satisfaction: pe rsonal characteristics of the subordinates, characteristics of environment. xxiv.Vroom-Yetton Leadership-Participation Model – pg 227 xxv. Executive Coaching – Private meeting to discuss and work on personal learning and development issues. Feedback coaching (consultant)- giving feedback and assisting person in developing an action plan to address need or problems that are observed (360 feedback; 1-6 months, not too intensive) In-depth coaching (counselor)- closer, intimate relationship, multiple assessments and discussion extensively used to develop interpersonal skills, etc. 6-12 months+) Content coaching (tutor)- provide leader with knowledge and skills for specific area (IT, acquisitions, globalization, etc. ; time varies, but relatively short) l. 4. Substitutes for Leadership – Leadership substitutes: individual, task, and organizational characteristics that tend to outweigh the leader’s ability to affect subordinates satisfactions and performance. L eadership neutralizers: factors that render ineffective leaders attempts to engage in various leadership behaviors. m.Empowerment – Emphasizes a move away from leader dominance and expert problem solving to a system where organizational members, as the new experts, are continuously involved in organizational decision processes. Tannenbaum & Schmidt Leader Continuum pg 236. Keys to empowerment: 1- important for employees to have information on organizational performance and outcomes. 2-individuals must be rewarded for their contributions to organization performance. 3-team members must be provided with knowledge/skills that enables them to understand and contribute to performance. -individuals must be given the power to make to make decisions that influence work procedures and organizational direction. n. Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership. Transactional Leader- Leader-follower relation one of exchange; narrow view; supervision and â€Å"normal† leaders (mana gers) Transformational Leader(charismatic)- Visionary, inspirational figure; ability to articulate & communicate vision and charisma to energize and motivate people; strong empathy skills and accurate perception of others; â€Å"change† leaders. dark side†- transformational or â€Å"magic† leaders may become captivated by their vision of what’s best and their vision may not be appropriate. Focus on what they want to hear, do not learn easily from those around them and may damage organizational performance. i. e. cults and Hitler. Characteristics of narcissistic leaders- 1. Rely on manipulation and exploitation. 2. Impulsive and unconventional behavior. 3. Excessive impression management. 4. Poor administrative practices. 5. Unable to recognize flawed vision. 6. Fail to plan for succession.These can be quite destructive. o. Gender Issues – Stereotypes, Research Findings, â€Å"Glass Ceiling†, Relation to International Expansion Stereotypes inc lude â€Å"masculine† characteristics are managerial, â€Å"feminine† unmanagerial. Research- Men & women with high needs for power tend to have quite similar characteristics Reasons more women not in power & leadership positions mostly â€Å"institutional sexism† (glass ceiling) Many components important to international success are â€Å"feminine†- relationship development, communication, social sensitivity (&empowerment) p.Categories of Leadership â€Å"Talents† Direction- vision, concepts, & focus Drive to Execute- achieve, compete, active, ego drive Relationships- relater, developer, networks, stimulate good feelings, team oriented Management systems- performance orientation, disciplined, arranger, strategic thinker 3. Intragroup Dynamics (ESSAY QUESTIONS) q. Reasons Groups Form- Security and need satisfaction, social need satisfaction, esteem need satisfaction, proximity and attraction, group goals, economic reason. Groups are there for a rea son. . Types of Groups – Formal vs. Informal; Heterogeneous & Homogeneous Formal- are those that have established task-oriented goals and are explicitly formed as part of the organization- such as work groups, departments, and project teams. Rational, identifiable, exist to serve organization. Informal- are those that emerge over time through the interaction of organizational members. Don’t have formally assigned or stated goals, they do have implied or implicit goals, which are frequently recreational and interpersonal in nature.Formal vs. informal- a rough distinction between these types of groups is that formal groups are represented on an organization chart, while informal (self-enacted) groups are not. Homogeneous- a group whose members have key aspects in common, in terms of either personal (e. g. attitudes, values, goals) or sociodemographic (e. g. education, age, gender, race) characteristics. Heterogeneous- groups are those that differ along significant dimens ions. s. Stages of Group DevelopmentForming- group member will find out what they will be doing, the kind of leadership and behaviors that are acceptable, and the range of interpersonal and task relationships that are possible. Typically confusion, caution. Storming- described as the â€Å"shakedown†, where individual styles come into conflict. Characterized by tension, criticism, and confrontation among members. Constructive conflict can occur. Norming- resistance is overcome as the group establishes its rules/roles and standards. Develops intragroup cohesiveness, delineates (outlines) task standards and expectations.This phase is marked by cooperation, collaboration, cohesion, and commitment . Performing- Accomplish tasks. Typical characteristics include challenge, creativity, group consciousness, and consideration among members. Adjourning/reforming- Closure (celebrate, rewards). Group members must either reassess their mission, roles, and processes or prepare for dissolut ion of the group. t. Group Attributes: xxvi. Individual & Group Status- status refers to the level/position of a person in the group or a group in an organization. Status differences. xxvii.Roles – Meaning, Conflict, Ambiguity: Role refers to the various behaviors people expect from a person or a group in a particular position. Role Conflict is playing several roles that elicit certain expectations that often contradict one another. Role Ambiguity refers to when one receives unclear or ambiguous signals about what is expected of us in a particular role. xxviii. Social Identity Theory – how group affects people-:Group membership affects members’ sense of who they are, how they see themselves, how they feel about themselves and how they act in a group, they become what others expect them to be. xix. Norms – What are they; Pivotal vs. Peripheral: are the common standards or ideas that guide member behavior in established groups. Pivotal norms are those that are considered to be particularly important to the group/organization. Peripheral norms in contrast are those that are not as important to group members xxx. Status and Conformity – Relationships, Expedient vs. Private: Desire to be accepted by the group, making individuals susceptible to conformity effects. They feel pressure to change their attitudes and behaviors to conform to the groups norms or operative standards.Expedient conformity is when a group member expresses attitudes and engages in behaviors that are acceptable to the group, while holding his private beliefs that are at odds with the group. Private acceptance is when an individual’s public and private attitudes and beliefs are compatible with the groups norms.. xxxi. Cohesiveness – What it means, Factors that lead to it, Impact on people, Electronic or Virtual Groups: Cohesiveness refers to the degree to which group members are attracted to one another and the resulting desire to remain in the gro up.Factors that lead to cohesiveness include mutual attraction amongst group members, similar views, attitudes, likings, performance, and behavior. Impact on people: intergroup conflict pulls members together and encourages cooperation, such conflict may become too powerful leading to intragroup competition that reduces cohesiveness. Electronic or virtual groups can become cohesive xxxii. Group (Org) Commitment – Meaning, Affective vs. Continuance; Free Agents.Group (org) commitment is the relative strength of individual group members feelings of identification with an attachment to a groups goals or tasks. Affective(emotionally attached) commitment means they maintain a relationship because they want to have high levels of group organization comfort and job challenge. Continuance commitment means they maintain a relationship because they have concerns about potential loss of pension, benefits, and a lack of other alternatives. *do it because they have to. xxxiii. Social Loaf ing – Meaning, How Common, How to deal with it. Reduced efforts of an individual group member when they perform as part of a group compared to individual efforts. â€Å"I wont work hard because someone else in the group will pick up slack†. More common in large groups. To deal with it make sure that group members understand the importance of their assignment as well as the mechanisms for group and individual accountability encouraging active participation. u. Lost Moon Exercise – v. Groupthink – This is a dynamic that diminishes the decision making capability of a group, try’s to minimize conflict and reach a consensus.Symptoms of group think include illusion to invulnerability, collective efforts to rationalize/discount warnings, not questioning the group, stereotyped views of â€Å"enemy† leaders, pressuring members, self-censorship of deviations, illusion of unanimity, self-appointed â€Å"mind-guards†(mind-gaurds withhold informat ion from a group to keep it in tact). How to guard against Everyone be a critical evaluator, somebody play devil’s advocate, be impartial, critical thinking, take time to study external factors. w.Choice-Shift – (group polarization) occurs when the average of the group members post-discussion attitudes tends to be more extreme than average prediscussion attitudes, generally happens when everyone is already leaning in one direction, may become more extreme during virtual groups x. Brainstorming, Nominal Group & Delphi Techniques – basically â€Å"How† they operate, Role of Electronic Communications. Brainstorming-trying to expand by getting many different interacting groups and different ideas from each group Nominal group technique: no criticizing no talking to eachother or evaluating.Do evaluation, ask everyone ideas, then rank (top to bottom) confidentially and independently, then mathematically pool them. You are trying to get everyone’s opinion without people criticizing them. Delphi technique: smaller group, completely anonymous (no one knows anybody). Has one mediator. Give them each the problem and they come up with their own answers/ideas and then exchange ideas/answers with everyone else and everybody comments on eachothers ideas. Repeat the process until you come up with a general consensus. 4. Organizational Socialization: y.Meaning – A process of adaption during which entrants learn the values, norms, expectations, and established procedures for assuming a particular role and for becoming an accepted member of the group or organization z. Purpose –For new members it reduces role ambiguity and increases feeling of security since group expectations are clarified. For the group or organization the socialization process creates more behavioral uniformity among its members, thereby developing a basis for understanding and collaboration and reducing potential group conflict. . Stages – What they are ; Sequence, & What goes on in each? 3 Stages: Anticipatory socialization- can be thought of as preliminary/prepatory stage during which time a person should be provided with realistic view of organizational goals and expectations, what the persons duties/responsibilities are, and the necessary task-related skills and abilities. Entrants can assess the fit between their values and needs of organizations. Organizational or group encounter- newcomer actually joins the group or organization.Initiation period during which individual needs to balance personal and work-related demands that may conflict with one another, while simultaneously learning new tasks, clarifying role expectations and becoming acquainted with peers. Acquisition of group norms and values- If successfully accomplished, newcomer feels apart of group and becomes accepted |. Effects of Socialization on Performance-a process of adaption during which newcomers learn the values, norms, expectations for assuming a particula r role and becoming a member of an organization.It helps the group become more effective. }. Realistic Job Previews- People entering into an organization need to know what to expect with their jobs so they can prepare to cope effectively with work related pressures and demands. ~. Mentoring – Individual and Group Group mentoring- Group influence that emerges from its norms and roles provide a greater sense of phsychological support for newcomers, facilitates their inclusion and sense of belonging. Individual mentoring- Having someone with high regard/respect help coach and guide you and help you out.

Health of Australias Indigenous People Essay Example

Health of Australias Indigenous People Essay Example Health of Australias Indigenous People Paper Health of Australias Indigenous People Paper Essay Topic: The Healers The health of Australia’s Indigenous peoples is documented to be of third world standard. This paper identifies and highlights the factors that influence Aboriginal health and wellbeing. It explores and analyses how Aboriginal health, as a reflection of the broader social, economic, political and environmental factors, is influenced by colonialism, not just historically but as a living legacy. It discusses the continuing influence of colonialism in Aboriginal health policy and practice and how this has been an obstacle to Aboriginal health improvement. Strategies for health improvement, guided by the principle of self-determination and primary health care are discussed. Consideration is given to the voices of Aboriginal Health Workers on Aboriginal health issues and the importance of those voices as an expression of self-determination. The negative influences of colonialism still exist today. Broome (1994 pg 23) states; â€Å"the meeting of two people from different cultures is bound to be marked by misunderstanding†. The nature of exchanges and responses of Europeans and Indigenous Australians happened as a gradual process throughout the early 1800’s. The processes of colonisation had such an impact on those already here. It is only now, that non-indigenous Australians are starting to understand the breadth and magnitude of this process. The notion of Terra Nullius was created and the great Southland was considered wasteland, unoccupied and belonging to no one. Reynolds (1987 pg 167) says, ‘Some settlers resolved the contradictions concerning the place of the Aborigines in European society by assuming that Australia had been before 1788, ‘waste and uncultivated’, a terra nullius or land without owners’. Despite this common belief, there was immediate resistance by Aboriginal people. Where former history was once of passive agreement and welcoming to the foreshores, history records the violent confrontations between Indigenous people and the colonialists with the overwhelming brutality of all but few of the new arrivals. It is not possible to comprehend the current status of Aboriginal Health and wellbeing without first acknowledging the legacies and treatment of Aboriginal people in this country since European invasion. There are many arguments for and against the notion that Aboriginal Australia was never invaded and that it was only a process of colonisation. Some argue that European colonisation was an act of genocide and was in fact an invasion with the intention to take over and repopulate Aboriginal Australia. Reynolds (cited in Reed and Trompt, 1991 page 5) says that ‘in addition to killing ‘twenty thousand blacks before federation’ and many more in the twentieth century as the frontier moved north and west in the Northern Territory and Western Australia), the conquerors launched three pronged attack on the health and welfare of Aborigines’. The first fleet brought with it, a cargo of disease that Aboriginal people had not experienced and diseases such as scurvy, mumps and typhus killed large numbers of Aboriginal people. Reed and Trompt (1991 page 5) suggest that Europeans ‘introduced new diseases, some immediately fatal, others fatal in the long term’. Further, ‘taking away ancestral land, thus causing psychological illness and spiritual despair’; and ‘by herding Aborigines into small reserves and settlements, destroying their healthy lifestyle and substituting conditions and diet poorer that those of the poorest newcomers’. To understand the impact on ones health, it’s important to conceptualise the meaning of health and what it means to have a ‘healthy lifestyle’. The Macquarie Dictionary (1993 pg 189) defines the meaning of health as (1. ‘ Soundness of body; Freedom from disease or ailment’) or (2. ‘The general condition of the body or mind’). Western medicine tends to use a disease model for treating patients with more activity centred on a particular illness or focus on a part of a body that is abnormal. The World Health Organisation defines health as; â€Å"Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity†. In other words, it is not just the absence of sickness and disease, but a complete state of physical, mental, social wellbeing’. One could argue that this definition does not cover the aspect of spiritual wellbeing. Spiritual wellbeing or ‘traditional healing’ plays an integral role in Aboriginal health today and is only now recognised and practiced by health professions across the state. Certain members of an Aboriginal community are often referred to as traditional healers. In many Aboriginal communities across Australia there are people who are seen to have magical powers. They have the ability to ‘sing’ someone, causing serious illness and even death. On the other hand, it can also be used to heal and bring someone out of sickness and infirmity. ‘More recently, greater understanding of the sociomedical theories of the Aboriginal healing system illuminate better the role of the traditional healer. In Aboriginal communities, healers are individuals who possess healing and divination powers which can be used for the benefit of the community’. (Reed and Trompt, 1991, page 313) The social and cultural dislocation experienced by Aboriginal people has indefinably had a profound effected on Aboriginal peoples mental well being. The word powerlessness and hopelessness comes to ones mind when consideration is given to the destruction that came from ‘European invasion’. The rippling effects of ‘European invasion’ can be seen today. One would only have to read the newspapers and textbooks to see such effects. These effects however, could be viewed as stresses that lead to mental ill health. Most stresses that lead to mental health are also economic. Most mental disorders have their highest prevalence in the lowest socioeconomic class. Research gives evidence that high proportions of Aboriginal population live in low socioeconomic or marginalised regions. Reed and Trompt (1991, page 249) says ‘The stress experienced by Aboriginal communities has been attributed to factors such as the marginal social and economic status of most Aboriginal communities’. It could then be argued that Aboriginal people as a whole experience a much lower standard of living than other Australians. Economic stress can lead to psychological stress. For instance, high unemployment, or rather, a lack of significant experience, extreme poverty, severe housing shortages, family violence, high crime rates, sexually transmitted diseases, alcoholism and malnutrition are all contributing factors to ones ill-health. As mentioned earlier, it is important to recognise Aboriginal health from social view. A social view of health is embedded within the Primary Health Care philosophy. It alters its focus to recognise the environment in which a person lives. The social view of health recognises that if people are poor, are living in an unhealthy environment or have no power over their lives, they will continue to get sick, no matter how many hospitals are built. While Aboriginal people in Australia have been setting a benchmark in Aboriginal medical services, other people throughout the world have been looking at different ways to provide health care. They have been realising that health services were only providing adequate care for those people who had power and money. Millions of poor, homeless or powerless people throughout the world were sick or dying because their needs were not being met. In 1978, the World Health Organisation held a conference on health in Alma-Ata in the USSR. People from 134 nations, including Australia, met to talk about their experiences and ways to make people healthier. They decided to call this new approach ‘Primary Health Care’. Out of this conference came a document called the ‘Declaration of Alma-Ata’. The Alama-Ata declaration talked about what Primary Health Care is and how changes could be made to health services around the world to improve health. The delegates at the Alama-Ata conference stated that ‘health is a basic human right’. The declaration called for a different approach to health and for health care to give equal share of health resources to all people. In 1989 the National Aboriginal Health Strategy was released and endorsed by all health and Aboriginal Affairs ministers. It was the biggest and most comprehensive report into Aboriginal health that had ever been undertaken. Its overall aim was to work towards increasing the access of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People to health services by the year 2000. It strongly supported the role of Aboriginal Health Workers and the development of Primary Health care services in Aboriginal communities. The report recognised that the most successful services are those that are controlled by the community rather than by government departments. Another policy response was the Royal Commission into Black Deaths in Custody, (1991, AGPS, Canberra) This â€Å"Royal Commission† was set up to investigate why so many Aboriginal people die in jail and police stations. In doing so it collected much information on the physical and mental health and living conditions of Aboriginal people. Several recommendations were aimed at improving the current health services and acknowledging the importance of Aboriginal Health Professionals. Both the National Aboriginal Health Strategy and The Royal Commission into Black Deaths in Custody reports have been criticised, for although they identify many problems, few changes have occurred. It is one thing to come up with recommendations; it’s how you implement them that really counts. It takes more than Government policies to affect change, community attitude and commitment are fundamental to social change. One could ask, who determines whether or not a recommendation has been implemented Successfully, and how is it reviewed to keep its status in a western dominant culture. Money does not change the way people relate to one another nor does it rule out hidden racism. One might implement all the recommendations in the Black Deaths in Custody report, but it still doesn’t change peoples negative opinions and attitudes toward Aboriginal people. Aboriginal people have been fighting for Social Justice for years and it’s still a major priority for the community as well as other human service workers. Human service workers can play a key role in bringing about change. The secret often lays in the principles of community development. Taking community action is a way that empowers a community. Community development is a tool that can be used to bring social change. Aboriginal people have had decades of change (â€Å"injustices†) being forced upon them. The only real way for change to be constructive today is for it to come from and involve Aboriginal people. Consensus building, empowerment, participation and social movement are all community development principles that are important in creating positive social change and addressing social justice issues. Self-determination and empowerment means having power over resources, decision making, relationships, and information. It is with this power, Aboriginal people are only now, starting to carve out a pathway for the next generation. My findings show that early history and views of Aboriginal people have influenced the way in which Aboriginal people are viewed and treated today. Decisions made in life are based on what is known or perceived as being the correct answer. Thus many decisions and views of Aboriginal people today are learned through education and information from past history. These views and decisions have disadvantaged Aboriginal people over the years, but they are also key factors in unlocking the answer to addressing past injustices. Prejudices and racial discrimination issues are often seen as issues that compound on the social wellbeing of Aboriginal people, thus making it harder to access services and maintain positive self-esteem and image. There are so many myths and beliefs about Aboriginal people that influence our service delivery today in both government and non-government sectors. Views and perceptions of early history linger in our society today because of ignorance. The status of Aboriginal health and wellbeing among Aboriginal people today can be looked at in terms of Aboriginal history and European invasion. The continuous effects of European invasion inevitably affected the lives of hundreds and thousands of Aboriginal people. These effects are evident in our society today. The National Inquiry into Black Deaths in Custody highlights a series of recommendations that refer to the betterment of Aboriginal health, with most still needing to be implemented. The health of Indigenous Australians is of third world standard in this country, and its not just an Aboriginal issue, it’s a political one. Allan Sumner Reference: Reed and Trompt, 1991, The Health Of Aboriginal Australia, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Group (Australia) Pty Ltd. Reynolds, Henry 1987 (Frontier) page 167, Allen Unwin Australia Pty Ltd. The Royal Commission into Black Deaths in Custody, 1991, AGPS, Canberra Three Years On, Implementation of Commonwealth Government Responses to the Recommendations of the Royal Commission into Black Deaths in Custody, Vol 2, pages 491 – 534. World Health Organisation, 1978, Primary Health Care: Report of the International conference of primary health care, Alma-Ata, USSR 6-12 September, WHO.