Cause and Effect Essay Essay Example for Free

Cause and Effect Essay Essay In Act Four Scene One Friar Lawrence explains the plan to Juliet, â€Å" Take thou this vial, being then in bed, And this distilled liquor drink thou off, When presently through all thy veins shall run A cold and drowsy humor, for no pulse Shall keep his native progress, but surcease. No warmth, no breath shall testify thou livest. The roses in thy lips and cheeks shall fade To paly ashes, thy eyes windows fall Like death when he shuts up the day of life. Each part, deprived of supple government, Shall, stiff and stark and cold, appear like death. And in this borrowed likeness of shrunk death Thou shalt continue two and forty hours,And then awake as from a pleasant sleep. Now, when the bridegroom in the morning comes To rouse thee from thy bed, there art thou dead. Then, as the manner of our country is, In thy best robes uncovered on the bier Thou shalt be borne to that same ancient vault Where all the kindred of the Capulets lie. In the meantime, against thou shalt awake, Shall Romeo by my letters know our drift,And hither shall he come, and he and I Will watch thy waking, and that very night Shall Romeo bear thee hence to Mantua. In Act Four Scene One Friar Lawrence explains the plan to Juliet, â€Å" Take thou this vial, being then in bed, And this distilled liquor drink thou off, When presently through all thy veins shall run A cold and drowsy humor, for no pulse Shall keep his native progress, but surcease. No warmth, no breath shall testify thou livest. The roses in thy lips and cheeks shall fade To paly ashes, thy eyes windows fall Like death when he shuts up the day of life. Each part, deprived of supple government, Shall, stiff and stark and cold, appear like death. And in this borrowed likeness of shrunk death Thou shalt continue two and forty hours,And then awake as from a pleasant sleep. Now, when the bridegroom in the morning comes To rouse thee from thy bed, there art thou dead. Then, as the manner of our country is, In thy best robes uncovered on the bier Thou shalt be borne to that same ancient vault Where all the kindred of the Capulets lie. In the meantime, against thou shalt awake, Shall Romeo by my letters know our drift,And hither shall he come, and he and I Will watch thy waking, and that very night Shall Romeo bear thee hence to Mantua. †

Indecision, Hesitation and Delay in Shakespeares Hamlet Essay

The Indecisiveness and Hesitation of Hamlet  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   In the Shakespearean drama Hamlet considerable literary critical comment swirls about the subject of the hero’s hesitation or indecision in the prayer scene. Is it weakness? Is it representative of a mental condition? Are there other incidences of hesitation? Let us explore the subject in this essay and interpret the key scene in light of other scenes, with input from literary critics.    David Bevington, in the Introduction to Twentieth Century Interpretations of Hamlet, eliminates some possible reasons for Hamlet’s hesitation in killing Claudius during the prayer scene:    Several limits can be placed upon the search for an explanation of Hamlet’s apparent hesitation to avenge. He is not ineffectual under ordinary circumstances. Elizabethan theories of melancholy did not suppose the sufferer to be made necessarily inactive. Hamlet has a deserved reputation in Denmark for manliness and princely demeanor. He keeps up his fencing practice and will â€Å"win at the odds† against Laertes. He threatens with death those who would restrain him from speaking with the ghost – even his friend Horatio – and stabs the concealed Polonius unflinchingly. On the sea voyage to England he boards a pirate ship single-handed in the grapple, after having arranged without remorse for the deaths of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. In light of these deeds, Hamlet’s self-accusations are signs of burning impatience in one who would surely act if he could. (5-6)    Harry Levin comments on Hamlet’s uncharacteristic hesitation in dispatching the king, in the General Introduction to The Riverside Shakespeare:    Comparably, Hamlet has been taken to task – or, perhaps more often, se... ...ilm, Television and Audio Performance. Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. P., 1988.    Levin, Harry. General Introduction. The Riverside Shakespeare. Ed. G. Blakemore Evans. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1974.    Nevo, Ruth. â€Å"Acts III and IV: Problems of Text and Staging.† Modern Critical Interpretations: Hamlet. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1986. Rpt. from Tragic Form in Shakespeare. N.p.: Princeton University Press, 1972.    Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 1995. http://www.chemicool.com/Shakespeare/hamlet/full.html    West, Rebecca. â€Å"A Court and World Infected by the Disease of Corruption.† Readings on Hamlet. Ed. Don Nardo. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1999. Rpt. from The Court and the Castle. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1957.

Multiple Sclerosis Diseases

Multiple Sclerosis is a disease that bewilders us all.. There is no known cause. We do know that MS (multiple sclerosis) is a disease where the myelin breaks down and is replaced by scar tissue. The demyelination can slow down or block the flow of signals to and from the central nervous system to the rest of the body, impairing such functions as vision, strength, and coordination. 1 While we do know what MS is we still don't know why, where and when people contract the disease. It has been proven that MS generally appears between the ages of twenty to forty and it strikes women at more than twice the ratio it strikes men. Statistics have also shown that the disease strikes the middle and upper class more than the lower class and poor. Worldwide research shows that MS has a broad geographical distribution. It has long established that MS is more prominent in colder regions and rare in tropical areas. Maine being a colder climate has shown some of the highest rates of MS. 2 There is evidence of a slight increase in MS among first degree relatives–parents, siblings, and children. It is also suspected that the same family members may inherent a genetic susceptibility to MS. While it is possible to inherit a genetic susceptibility to MS, it is not possible to inherit the disease. And even people who have all the necessary genes don't necessarily get MS. The disease, experts believe, must be triggered by environmental factors. So MS is not considered a hereditary disease. 3 Until the definite cause of Ms is proved the treatment cannot be truly scientific. But there are treatments that are effective in dealing with symptoms. For instance, there are the common sense treatments that everyone, with or without an illness, should treat themselves with, which are: A healthy diet, exercise, sufficient amount of rest and to live your life as you would normally. There are also lots of drugs that treat many of the different symptoms. Since there are so many symptoms and treatments, I will only list a few: Treatments that increase the blood flow, that decrease blood clotting, treatments for chemical eccess or deficiency, treatments to prevent infection and treatments for the immune system. Treatment and rehabilitation have also been joined together. Weakness is one of the major symptoms of Ms and can be treated with physical therapy and strengthening exercises. One of the best exercises for reducing weakness in the limbs is hydrotherapy. Hydrotherapy is done in the water. Hydrotherapy exercises use the benefits of buoyancy. Another way to eliminate weakness is to stay off a weak limb. Overall, by recognizing limits and using common sense, weakness can be greatly diminished. 4 Spasticity, another MS symptom, is most effectively treated with physical therapy. Cold is an excellent temporary measure for relaxing the spastic limb. Hydrotherapy is, again, the most effective exercise for relief, combining stretching and cool temperatures. There are also many medications for spasticity, such as Baclofen, Dantrollene, and Diazepam. Relaxation techniques such as yoga, transcendental meditation, biofeedback, have been successful with spasticity as well. 5 Some MS patients might have mild to sever balance trouble. In mild cases, the person can learn how to compensate easily by standing and walking with a little wider base and taking short steps rather than long strides. When balance trouble is a little more severe, a four-pronged cane, crutches or a walker may be necessary. Someone with MS could have visual problems. The problem varies from decreased acuity, blurred or cloudy vision, and double vision. The treatment depends on the stage of the problem. If it is a new part of an attack, visual loss responds to steroids. If it is a persistent problem, glasses or special lenses might be the best treatment. 7 Bladder problems are unfortunately not uncommon with MS. The most common are frequency and urgency. There are three good medications that relieve symptoms when they are present for more than a week or two: Pro-Banthine, Ditropan and Tofranil. Iif bladder problems do not respond to medication, a complete bladder training problem may be prescribed. 7 The treatments and medications used ten years ago are still effective and still being used but there are medical breakthroughs being announced regularly. In October of 1994, there was a medical breakthrough. Researchers found out that an anticancer drug stops the most crippling form of MS. The drug is Cladribine and the results are dramatic. A study was done on 49 patients with progressive chronic MS, which effects about 53,000 Americans and is the most severe form of MS. Half of the patients were given the drug and the other half were given a placebo. For the patients that were given Cladribine the spread of MS stopped for all patients and some improved. Their legs no longer shook and they no longer needed canes or braces. Dr. Ernest Beutler stated: â€Å"It's the only agent that has clearly been shown to stop the progression of the disease. â€Å"8 Another treatment that is not new or a medical breakthrough but is very effective and gaining popularity with MS patients is Apitherapy, which is the scientific name for the bee venom that is used by MS patients. Doctors aren't exactly sure why the bee venom is effective. They know that the venom contains two powerful anti-inflammatory agents, melittin and adolapin which appear to fight the neural sheath inflammation itself. One women with MS is quoted after two months of bee venom treatments: â€Å"My hearing was totally back and I was out of the wheelchair and walking with a cane†. Another example was a young women who had bladder problems. After her venom treatments she hasn't wet the bed since she first contracted MS. Others have noticed more balance, more energy and less numbness in there legs and feet. Overall, whether it's medication, exercise, rehabilitation, the most important factor in the treatment of this disease is to have a positive attitude, hope for the future, and a desire to live your life as you normally would from day to day. Socially MS can be just as difficult to fight as it is physically. Dating, marriage, children, careers, parents and friends can be difficult barriers emotionally. dating is hard for anyone regardless of sex, age, appearance or status in life. if your MS has visual symptoms that are apparent to others. its best to be open right away. You should go about this in whatever way is most comfortable to you. for people with mild or invisible MS, disclosure to a dating can and probably should wait. Like any other person some relationships work out and some don't . The best advice is to date, explore new relationships and don't be afraid to fall in love. 2 MS will have an impact on your marriage. Management of Ms requires patience and understanding. When your MS is in remission there may be no problem to face. When you're in a new attack, your mate need to take over shopping, cooking, mowing, and caring for the children if any. the most patience and understandings comes to anned when a person with MS becomes disabled. this is the real test of love for most couples. this is when you should really take notice of what kind of problems you had before. Don't expect your partner to feel guilty. if the marriage was meant to work it will work. If you have MS your children have probably already figured out that something is wrong before you tell them. The best approach is to be honest with your children. with each knew attack there needs to be communication. Parents with MS should watch their children for any emotional difficulties they may be having. Keeping your friends should not be a problem. Good reins stick by your side through everything. Your friends should feel comfortable with you just as you should feel comfortable with them. With making new friends it should be just the same as you made them before. You should eventually tell them about MS but it can wait until both feel comfortable with talking about it. More often it is harder for someone with MS just to hang on to a job. unfortunately it has little to do with their ability and more to do with discrimination. But today there are laws and regulations so Know one with any disability should be fired or feel thy have to quit. 2 Job hunting with Ms is a whole different issue. if you have viable symptoms, you are going to have to address your situation up front . If you have an interview you may want to be up front about it on the phone. The main thing is if you feel comfortable with yourself others will to. You should always emphasize that you are a hard worker. And be aware of discrimination because it happens all the time and it is illegal. Overall i personally believe that Ms should not get in the way of your social life. If you have a good personality you should be able to make friends and if you are a hard worker there is no reason why you should not be able to work. A positive way of thinking will definitely get you on your way. After MS patients have dealt with physical therapy, doctors, treatments and medications you may ask yourself where would therapeutic recreation come into the picture? The answer to that would depend on the person and what type of lifestyle and goals they had for themselves. today's society is pushing everyone to physically and emotionally fit with activities such as mountain biking, swimming skiing, and walking. The reason these and many other activates are so popular is because its fun, its a hobby, receives stress and its exercise whereas riding a stationary bike is exercise but you don't hear to many people say its their hobby or its a fun pastime. TR(therapeutic recreation) come into place with people with MS and other mental and physical disabilities because their is a need for them to fulfill their goals and expectations like everyone else. Since they have a special need a TR program or specialist can help them fulfill that need. People with MS should have the maximum participation with the fewest adaptations. Just like any other part of their life style they should develop a leisure lifestyle that is normal a possible. I think it is important for Ms patients to choose their own activates and set their own goals, within reason.! Lastly, I feel sensitive to anyone that contracts a disease, such as AIDS, or cancer. Its an awful thing if someone was an IV drug user and than they contacted the Aids Virus or if some one smoked for thirty years and they were diagnosed with lung cancer. I think one of the hardest things about Ms is that you can be healthy or not healthy know one in your family could have it and then one day you show symptoms. Physiologically Yes that would be a difficult thing to deal with. But it is a disease that is striking millions of people and after doing research I believe the positive attitude and to go on with your normal way of living is the best psychological cure. It doesn't stop you from living, having a job, a family, hobbies, or friends. Overall when they say MS is a mystery disease i would have to agree. I think there is definite hope for a cure for the future. We have medical breakthroughs and have several clues to the disease.

Management: Organizational Behavior Study Guide

MGT 341 Exam II Study Guide 1. Power (Article and Book) a. Meaning of Power – â€Å"The ability to influence various outcomes: or The ability to â€Å"make things happen† or â€Å"get things done† i. Individuals/Groups are presumed to have power based on the following factors: * Ability to cope with Uncertainty * Substitutability – the lower the substitutability the greater the power. * Organizational Centrality – the more central a person/group is to an organization; the greater the power. Role and Task Interdependence – if the activities of a person/group depend on the activities of another person/group -> the latter is considered to have greater control or power. b. Relationship of Power to Authority – Power and Authority are closely related to the concept of leadership. ii. Authority – Situations in which a person/group has been formally granted a leadership position. iii. Legitimate Power – formerly sanctioned by or ganization (Contractual) or informally supported by individual/group (Consensual). iv.Executive / Managerial Power – directed towards creating and maintaining an active organization – ideal of transforming the organization to it’s highest potential. c. Appointed vs. Emergent Leaders (Formal vs. Informal) d. Types of Power: Yellow = Position Power Red = Personal Power Positional Power – Organization * Appointed leaders / formal power – **Most Common Form of Power** * Easily controlled by the organization. * Attributed to the Position rather than the individual. * Appointed from upper level management. 1.Reward Power – The extent to which a person controls rewards another person values (Can give people things they want; satisfy needs). 2. Legitimate Power – Power granted by virtue of one’s position. 3. Coercive Power – The extent to which a person can punish or physically/psychologically harm someone else (do bad things to a person). Personal Power – Personal/Individual – Emergent (i. e. as the individual becomes acclimated to the environment they may â€Å"emerge† professionally or when there is a group that does not have an apparent leader figure, one will â€Å"emerge† naturally. Attributed to the Individual rather than the organization. * Not easily influenced by the organization. * Influence is â€Å"earned† or gained after â€Å"proving ones self. † Expert Power – The extent to which a person controls rewards another person values. (Can give people things they want; satisfy needs). 1. Referent Power – Exists when one person wants to be like someone else r imitates someone else. (based on admiration and respect). e. Situational Variables that can provide power. v. Ability to cope with uncertainty vi.Substitutability – The extent to which someone else in the organization can â€Å"Substitute† for someone else. (The lower the su bstitutability the greater the power). vii. Organizational Centrality – the more central a person is to the task or processes of the organization, the greater the power. viii. Role and Take Interdependence – If the activities of a person or group are dependent on that of another person/group > the latter has the power. f. Leadership Motive Syndrome – The need for power must be greater than the need for affiliation.Must refrain from being perceived as Impulsive, Coercive, or Manipulative. g. Acceptance Theory – manager's authority is derived from subordinates' acceptance, instead of the hierarchical power structure of the organization h. Power Gap – Difference between formal positional power granted and the actual power required to accomplish goals. ix. How to â€Å"Fill the Gap† > * Acquiring Information & Ideas * Assess Who has Power * Good Relationships * Interpersonal Skills * Networks (power building tool) * Create Valued Agendas Image & Track Record 2. Leadership: i. Trait Approaches: x. Focus –Early approaches focused on those personal characteristics and attributes- physical, mental, and cultural. The research is often termed the â€Å"Great Person† theory of leadership (it was assumed leaders were different from average people based on personality and physical characteristics) â€Å"leaders are born, not made†. 5 personal characteristics seemed related to effective leadership: intelligence, dominance, self-confidence, high levels of energy and activity, and task-relevant knowledge. i. Problems – Relationship between these characteristics and evidence of effective leadership is not particularly strong. In the case of each characteristic, there have been significant studies that have either not shown any relationship with effective leadership or found a negative relationship. Thus, provides an incomplete picture of leadership xii. Reemergence of Interest – reemerged as a promisi ng research area, especially in terms of examining specific traits related to the effectiveness/success in different organizational settings.Studies from the 80’s and 90’s suggest there are a number of traits that do contribute to effective leadership: Drive, leadership motivation, honesty and integrity, self-confidence, resonance, cognitive ability and knowledge of the business. Alone, these do not guarantee leadership success, but they can help for success. xiii. Key Dimensions for â€Å"Magic† or Charismatic Leadership – 3 key dimensions are envisioning, energizing and enabling. â€Å"Natural Leaders†, energize-inspire, envisioning-create & communicate image, enabling- enable other people * Linking to Results – Finding the correct quality that gives you positive results.The results should be balanced, strategic, lasting, and selfless. This link between attributes and results enriches our understanding of the relationship between leader tr aits and leadership effectiveness j. Behavioral Approaches: Focused on the various behavioral patterns or styles used by different leaders and the functions fulfilled by these individuals. xiv. Democratic – Leading through group input and decision making. xv. Autocratic – Leading by command xvi. Laissez-faire-Leading through minimal participation by the leader and allowance of total group freedom xvii. University of Michigan Studies – Research into behavioral aspects of leadership. Were concerned with two different leader orientations: one toward employees and the other toward production. The results suggested that a strong orientation to production resembled the autocratic leadership style, while a strong employee orientation was indicative of the democratic leadership style. xviii. *Ohio State Studies – Similar to Michigan studies. Two basic factors derived: initiating structure and consideration for others.See pages 214-215 xix. *Managerial Grid > Conc ern for people and production, uses 5 sections on grid, want managers to be a 9,9. Most popular Concern for People Concern for People Concern for Results (1,1) = LCP & LCR, (1,9) = HFP & LCR, (9,9) = HCP & HCR, (9,1) = HCR & LCP. 1,9| | 9,9| | 5,5| | | | | 1,1| | 9,1| * Based on a â€Å"Concern for People† & â€Å" Concern for Production† * Includes Motivation xx. Likert’s Linking Pin & System 4 ideas Likert found that the Traditional View of management (close supervision/high structure) only PARTLY explained the roles of managers. * Believed that managers are members of (2) different workgroups 1. Person is responsible FOR. > Subordinates 2. Person is responsible TO (Traditional View of Supervision). > Leaders * Power comes from the ability to excerpt power Upward and Lateral (Peer Managers) * (2) Elements must be looked at: i. Task Component ii. Human Component * Approach consists of Integrated Workgroups. * Managers are members of multiple Workgroups. xi. Sys tem 4- (participative)- supervisors trust their subordinates and goal setting and decision making are collaborative activities. k. Contingency Approaches – This perspective suggests that there is no â€Å"one best way† to lead in all situations; rather, the most effective style of leadership is contingent or dependent on the situation. Contingency theories combine the trait approach and the behavioral /functional theories to suggest the most effective leaders are those individuals who can adapt their styles to the demands of a situation, group, or values xxii.Situational Leadership – (Life-Cycle Theory of Leadership) pg 225 xxiii. Path-Goal Model – The leader affects subordinates’ performance by clarifying the behaviors (paths) that will lead to desired rewards (goals). Types of leader behaviors: directive, supportive, participative, achievement-oriented. Situational factor which influence how leader behavior relates to subordinate satisfaction: pe rsonal characteristics of the subordinates, characteristics of environment. xxiv.Vroom-Yetton Leadership-Participation Model – pg 227 xxv. Executive Coaching – Private meeting to discuss and work on personal learning and development issues. Feedback coaching (consultant)- giving feedback and assisting person in developing an action plan to address need or problems that are observed (360 feedback; 1-6 months, not too intensive) In-depth coaching (counselor)- closer, intimate relationship, multiple assessments and discussion extensively used to develop interpersonal skills, etc. 6-12 months+) Content coaching (tutor)- provide leader with knowledge and skills for specific area (IT, acquisitions, globalization, etc. ; time varies, but relatively short) l. 4. Substitutes for Leadership – Leadership substitutes: individual, task, and organizational characteristics that tend to outweigh the leader’s ability to affect subordinates satisfactions and performance. L eadership neutralizers: factors that render ineffective leaders attempts to engage in various leadership behaviors. m.Empowerment – Emphasizes a move away from leader dominance and expert problem solving to a system where organizational members, as the new experts, are continuously involved in organizational decision processes. Tannenbaum & Schmidt Leader Continuum pg 236. Keys to empowerment: 1- important for employees to have information on organizational performance and outcomes. 2-individuals must be rewarded for their contributions to organization performance. 3-team members must be provided with knowledge/skills that enables them to understand and contribute to performance. -individuals must be given the power to make to make decisions that influence work procedures and organizational direction. n. Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership. Transactional Leader- Leader-follower relation one of exchange; narrow view; supervision and â€Å"normal† leaders (mana gers) Transformational Leader(charismatic)- Visionary, inspirational figure; ability to articulate & communicate vision and charisma to energize and motivate people; strong empathy skills and accurate perception of others; â€Å"change† leaders. dark side†- transformational or â€Å"magic† leaders may become captivated by their vision of what’s best and their vision may not be appropriate. Focus on what they want to hear, do not learn easily from those around them and may damage organizational performance. i. e. cults and Hitler. Characteristics of narcissistic leaders- 1. Rely on manipulation and exploitation. 2. Impulsive and unconventional behavior. 3. Excessive impression management. 4. Poor administrative practices. 5. Unable to recognize flawed vision. 6. Fail to plan for succession.These can be quite destructive. o. Gender Issues – Stereotypes, Research Findings, â€Å"Glass Ceiling†, Relation to International Expansion Stereotypes inc lude â€Å"masculine† characteristics are managerial, â€Å"feminine† unmanagerial. Research- Men & women with high needs for power tend to have quite similar characteristics Reasons more women not in power & leadership positions mostly â€Å"institutional sexism† (glass ceiling) Many components important to international success are â€Å"feminine†- relationship development, communication, social sensitivity (&empowerment) p.Categories of Leadership â€Å"Talents† Direction- vision, concepts, & focus Drive to Execute- achieve, compete, active, ego drive Relationships- relater, developer, networks, stimulate good feelings, team oriented Management systems- performance orientation, disciplined, arranger, strategic thinker 3. Intragroup Dynamics (ESSAY QUESTIONS) q. Reasons Groups Form- Security and need satisfaction, social need satisfaction, esteem need satisfaction, proximity and attraction, group goals, economic reason. Groups are there for a rea son. . Types of Groups – Formal vs. Informal; Heterogeneous & Homogeneous Formal- are those that have established task-oriented goals and are explicitly formed as part of the organization- such as work groups, departments, and project teams. Rational, identifiable, exist to serve organization. Informal- are those that emerge over time through the interaction of organizational members. Don’t have formally assigned or stated goals, they do have implied or implicit goals, which are frequently recreational and interpersonal in nature.Formal vs. informal- a rough distinction between these types of groups is that formal groups are represented on an organization chart, while informal (self-enacted) groups are not. Homogeneous- a group whose members have key aspects in common, in terms of either personal (e. g. attitudes, values, goals) or sociodemographic (e. g. education, age, gender, race) characteristics. Heterogeneous- groups are those that differ along significant dimens ions. s. Stages of Group DevelopmentForming- group member will find out what they will be doing, the kind of leadership and behaviors that are acceptable, and the range of interpersonal and task relationships that are possible. Typically confusion, caution. Storming- described as the â€Å"shakedown†, where individual styles come into conflict. Characterized by tension, criticism, and confrontation among members. Constructive conflict can occur. Norming- resistance is overcome as the group establishes its rules/roles and standards. Develops intragroup cohesiveness, delineates (outlines) task standards and expectations.This phase is marked by cooperation, collaboration, cohesion, and commitment . Performing- Accomplish tasks. Typical characteristics include challenge, creativity, group consciousness, and consideration among members. Adjourning/reforming- Closure (celebrate, rewards). Group members must either reassess their mission, roles, and processes or prepare for dissolut ion of the group. t. Group Attributes: xxvi. Individual & Group Status- status refers to the level/position of a person in the group or a group in an organization. Status differences. xxvii.Roles – Meaning, Conflict, Ambiguity: Role refers to the various behaviors people expect from a person or a group in a particular position. Role Conflict is playing several roles that elicit certain expectations that often contradict one another. Role Ambiguity refers to when one receives unclear or ambiguous signals about what is expected of us in a particular role. xxviii. Social Identity Theory – how group affects people-:Group membership affects members’ sense of who they are, how they see themselves, how they feel about themselves and how they act in a group, they become what others expect them to be. xix. Norms – What are they; Pivotal vs. Peripheral: are the common standards or ideas that guide member behavior in established groups. Pivotal norms are those that are considered to be particularly important to the group/organization. Peripheral norms in contrast are those that are not as important to group members xxx. Status and Conformity – Relationships, Expedient vs. Private: Desire to be accepted by the group, making individuals susceptible to conformity effects. They feel pressure to change their attitudes and behaviors to conform to the groups norms or operative standards.Expedient conformity is when a group member expresses attitudes and engages in behaviors that are acceptable to the group, while holding his private beliefs that are at odds with the group. Private acceptance is when an individual’s public and private attitudes and beliefs are compatible with the groups norms.. xxxi. Cohesiveness – What it means, Factors that lead to it, Impact on people, Electronic or Virtual Groups: Cohesiveness refers to the degree to which group members are attracted to one another and the resulting desire to remain in the gro up.Factors that lead to cohesiveness include mutual attraction amongst group members, similar views, attitudes, likings, performance, and behavior. Impact on people: intergroup conflict pulls members together and encourages cooperation, such conflict may become too powerful leading to intragroup competition that reduces cohesiveness. Electronic or virtual groups can become cohesive xxxii. Group (Org) Commitment – Meaning, Affective vs. Continuance; Free Agents.Group (org) commitment is the relative strength of individual group members feelings of identification with an attachment to a groups goals or tasks. Affective(emotionally attached) commitment means they maintain a relationship because they want to have high levels of group organization comfort and job challenge. Continuance commitment means they maintain a relationship because they have concerns about potential loss of pension, benefits, and a lack of other alternatives. *do it because they have to. xxxiii. Social Loaf ing – Meaning, How Common, How to deal with it. Reduced efforts of an individual group member when they perform as part of a group compared to individual efforts. â€Å"I wont work hard because someone else in the group will pick up slack†. More common in large groups. To deal with it make sure that group members understand the importance of their assignment as well as the mechanisms for group and individual accountability encouraging active participation. u. Lost Moon Exercise – v. Groupthink – This is a dynamic that diminishes the decision making capability of a group, try’s to minimize conflict and reach a consensus.Symptoms of group think include illusion to invulnerability, collective efforts to rationalize/discount warnings, not questioning the group, stereotyped views of â€Å"enemy† leaders, pressuring members, self-censorship of deviations, illusion of unanimity, self-appointed â€Å"mind-guards†(mind-gaurds withhold informat ion from a group to keep it in tact). How to guard against Everyone be a critical evaluator, somebody play devil’s advocate, be impartial, critical thinking, take time to study external factors. w.Choice-Shift – (group polarization) occurs when the average of the group members post-discussion attitudes tends to be more extreme than average prediscussion attitudes, generally happens when everyone is already leaning in one direction, may become more extreme during virtual groups x. Brainstorming, Nominal Group & Delphi Techniques – basically â€Å"How† they operate, Role of Electronic Communications. Brainstorming-trying to expand by getting many different interacting groups and different ideas from each group Nominal group technique: no criticizing no talking to eachother or evaluating.Do evaluation, ask everyone ideas, then rank (top to bottom) confidentially and independently, then mathematically pool them. You are trying to get everyone’s opinion without people criticizing them. Delphi technique: smaller group, completely anonymous (no one knows anybody). Has one mediator. Give them each the problem and they come up with their own answers/ideas and then exchange ideas/answers with everyone else and everybody comments on eachothers ideas. Repeat the process until you come up with a general consensus. 4. Organizational Socialization: y.Meaning – A process of adaption during which entrants learn the values, norms, expectations, and established procedures for assuming a particular role and for becoming an accepted member of the group or organization z. Purpose –For new members it reduces role ambiguity and increases feeling of security since group expectations are clarified. For the group or organization the socialization process creates more behavioral uniformity among its members, thereby developing a basis for understanding and collaboration and reducing potential group conflict. . Stages – What they are ; Sequence, & What goes on in each? 3 Stages: Anticipatory socialization- can be thought of as preliminary/prepatory stage during which time a person should be provided with realistic view of organizational goals and expectations, what the persons duties/responsibilities are, and the necessary task-related skills and abilities. Entrants can assess the fit between their values and needs of organizations. Organizational or group encounter- newcomer actually joins the group or organization.Initiation period during which individual needs to balance personal and work-related demands that may conflict with one another, while simultaneously learning new tasks, clarifying role expectations and becoming acquainted with peers. Acquisition of group norms and values- If successfully accomplished, newcomer feels apart of group and becomes accepted |. Effects of Socialization on Performance-a process of adaption during which newcomers learn the values, norms, expectations for assuming a particula r role and becoming a member of an organization.It helps the group become more effective. }. Realistic Job Previews- People entering into an organization need to know what to expect with their jobs so they can prepare to cope effectively with work related pressures and demands. ~. Mentoring – Individual and Group Group mentoring- Group influence that emerges from its norms and roles provide a greater sense of phsychological support for newcomers, facilitates their inclusion and sense of belonging. Individual mentoring- Having someone with high regard/respect help coach and guide you and help you out.

Health of Australias Indigenous People Essay Example

Health of Australias Indigenous People Essay Example Health of Australias Indigenous People Paper Health of Australias Indigenous People Paper Essay Topic: The Healers The health of Australia’s Indigenous peoples is documented to be of third world standard. This paper identifies and highlights the factors that influence Aboriginal health and wellbeing. It explores and analyses how Aboriginal health, as a reflection of the broader social, economic, political and environmental factors, is influenced by colonialism, not just historically but as a living legacy. It discusses the continuing influence of colonialism in Aboriginal health policy and practice and how this has been an obstacle to Aboriginal health improvement. Strategies for health improvement, guided by the principle of self-determination and primary health care are discussed. Consideration is given to the voices of Aboriginal Health Workers on Aboriginal health issues and the importance of those voices as an expression of self-determination. The negative influences of colonialism still exist today. Broome (1994 pg 23) states; â€Å"the meeting of two people from different cultures is bound to be marked by misunderstanding†. The nature of exchanges and responses of Europeans and Indigenous Australians happened as a gradual process throughout the early 1800’s. The processes of colonisation had such an impact on those already here. It is only now, that non-indigenous Australians are starting to understand the breadth and magnitude of this process. The notion of Terra Nullius was created and the great Southland was considered wasteland, unoccupied and belonging to no one. Reynolds (1987 pg 167) says, ‘Some settlers resolved the contradictions concerning the place of the Aborigines in European society by assuming that Australia had been before 1788, ‘waste and uncultivated’, a terra nullius or land without owners’. Despite this common belief, there was immediate resistance by Aboriginal people. Where former history was once of passive agreement and welcoming to the foreshores, history records the violent confrontations between Indigenous people and the colonialists with the overwhelming brutality of all but few of the new arrivals. It is not possible to comprehend the current status of Aboriginal Health and wellbeing without first acknowledging the legacies and treatment of Aboriginal people in this country since European invasion. There are many arguments for and against the notion that Aboriginal Australia was never invaded and that it was only a process of colonisation. Some argue that European colonisation was an act of genocide and was in fact an invasion with the intention to take over and repopulate Aboriginal Australia. Reynolds (cited in Reed and Trompt, 1991 page 5) says that ‘in addition to killing ‘twenty thousand blacks before federation’ and many more in the twentieth century as the frontier moved north and west in the Northern Territory and Western Australia), the conquerors launched three pronged attack on the health and welfare of Aborigines’. The first fleet brought with it, a cargo of disease that Aboriginal people had not experienced and diseases such as scurvy, mumps and typhus killed large numbers of Aboriginal people. Reed and Trompt (1991 page 5) suggest that Europeans ‘introduced new diseases, some immediately fatal, others fatal in the long term’. Further, ‘taking away ancestral land, thus causing psychological illness and spiritual despair’; and ‘by herding Aborigines into small reserves and settlements, destroying their healthy lifestyle and substituting conditions and diet poorer that those of the poorest newcomers’. To understand the impact on ones health, it’s important to conceptualise the meaning of health and what it means to have a ‘healthy lifestyle’. The Macquarie Dictionary (1993 pg 189) defines the meaning of health as (1. ‘ Soundness of body; Freedom from disease or ailment’) or (2. ‘The general condition of the body or mind’). Western medicine tends to use a disease model for treating patients with more activity centred on a particular illness or focus on a part of a body that is abnormal. The World Health Organisation defines health as; â€Å"Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity†. In other words, it is not just the absence of sickness and disease, but a complete state of physical, mental, social wellbeing’. One could argue that this definition does not cover the aspect of spiritual wellbeing. Spiritual wellbeing or ‘traditional healing’ plays an integral role in Aboriginal health today and is only now recognised and practiced by health professions across the state. Certain members of an Aboriginal community are often referred to as traditional healers. In many Aboriginal communities across Australia there are people who are seen to have magical powers. They have the ability to ‘sing’ someone, causing serious illness and even death. On the other hand, it can also be used to heal and bring someone out of sickness and infirmity. ‘More recently, greater understanding of the sociomedical theories of the Aboriginal healing system illuminate better the role of the traditional healer. In Aboriginal communities, healers are individuals who possess healing and divination powers which can be used for the benefit of the community’. (Reed and Trompt, 1991, page 313) The social and cultural dislocation experienced by Aboriginal people has indefinably had a profound effected on Aboriginal peoples mental well being. The word powerlessness and hopelessness comes to ones mind when consideration is given to the destruction that came from ‘European invasion’. The rippling effects of ‘European invasion’ can be seen today. One would only have to read the newspapers and textbooks to see such effects. These effects however, could be viewed as stresses that lead to mental ill health. Most stresses that lead to mental health are also economic. Most mental disorders have their highest prevalence in the lowest socioeconomic class. Research gives evidence that high proportions of Aboriginal population live in low socioeconomic or marginalised regions. Reed and Trompt (1991, page 249) says ‘The stress experienced by Aboriginal communities has been attributed to factors such as the marginal social and economic status of most Aboriginal communities’. It could then be argued that Aboriginal people as a whole experience a much lower standard of living than other Australians. Economic stress can lead to psychological stress. For instance, high unemployment, or rather, a lack of significant experience, extreme poverty, severe housing shortages, family violence, high crime rates, sexually transmitted diseases, alcoholism and malnutrition are all contributing factors to ones ill-health. As mentioned earlier, it is important to recognise Aboriginal health from social view. A social view of health is embedded within the Primary Health Care philosophy. It alters its focus to recognise the environment in which a person lives. The social view of health recognises that if people are poor, are living in an unhealthy environment or have no power over their lives, they will continue to get sick, no matter how many hospitals are built. While Aboriginal people in Australia have been setting a benchmark in Aboriginal medical services, other people throughout the world have been looking at different ways to provide health care. They have been realising that health services were only providing adequate care for those people who had power and money. Millions of poor, homeless or powerless people throughout the world were sick or dying because their needs were not being met. In 1978, the World Health Organisation held a conference on health in Alma-Ata in the USSR. People from 134 nations, including Australia, met to talk about their experiences and ways to make people healthier. They decided to call this new approach ‘Primary Health Care’. Out of this conference came a document called the ‘Declaration of Alma-Ata’. The Alama-Ata declaration talked about what Primary Health Care is and how changes could be made to health services around the world to improve health. The delegates at the Alama-Ata conference stated that ‘health is a basic human right’. The declaration called for a different approach to health and for health care to give equal share of health resources to all people. In 1989 the National Aboriginal Health Strategy was released and endorsed by all health and Aboriginal Affairs ministers. It was the biggest and most comprehensive report into Aboriginal health that had ever been undertaken. Its overall aim was to work towards increasing the access of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People to health services by the year 2000. It strongly supported the role of Aboriginal Health Workers and the development of Primary Health care services in Aboriginal communities. The report recognised that the most successful services are those that are controlled by the community rather than by government departments. Another policy response was the Royal Commission into Black Deaths in Custody, (1991, AGPS, Canberra) This â€Å"Royal Commission† was set up to investigate why so many Aboriginal people die in jail and police stations. In doing so it collected much information on the physical and mental health and living conditions of Aboriginal people. Several recommendations were aimed at improving the current health services and acknowledging the importance of Aboriginal Health Professionals. Both the National Aboriginal Health Strategy and The Royal Commission into Black Deaths in Custody reports have been criticised, for although they identify many problems, few changes have occurred. It is one thing to come up with recommendations; it’s how you implement them that really counts. It takes more than Government policies to affect change, community attitude and commitment are fundamental to social change. One could ask, who determines whether or not a recommendation has been implemented Successfully, and how is it reviewed to keep its status in a western dominant culture. Money does not change the way people relate to one another nor does it rule out hidden racism. One might implement all the recommendations in the Black Deaths in Custody report, but it still doesn’t change peoples negative opinions and attitudes toward Aboriginal people. Aboriginal people have been fighting for Social Justice for years and it’s still a major priority for the community as well as other human service workers. Human service workers can play a key role in bringing about change. The secret often lays in the principles of community development. Taking community action is a way that empowers a community. Community development is a tool that can be used to bring social change. Aboriginal people have had decades of change (â€Å"injustices†) being forced upon them. The only real way for change to be constructive today is for it to come from and involve Aboriginal people. Consensus building, empowerment, participation and social movement are all community development principles that are important in creating positive social change and addressing social justice issues. Self-determination and empowerment means having power over resources, decision making, relationships, and information. It is with this power, Aboriginal people are only now, starting to carve out a pathway for the next generation. My findings show that early history and views of Aboriginal people have influenced the way in which Aboriginal people are viewed and treated today. Decisions made in life are based on what is known or perceived as being the correct answer. Thus many decisions and views of Aboriginal people today are learned through education and information from past history. These views and decisions have disadvantaged Aboriginal people over the years, but they are also key factors in unlocking the answer to addressing past injustices. Prejudices and racial discrimination issues are often seen as issues that compound on the social wellbeing of Aboriginal people, thus making it harder to access services and maintain positive self-esteem and image. There are so many myths and beliefs about Aboriginal people that influence our service delivery today in both government and non-government sectors. Views and perceptions of early history linger in our society today because of ignorance. The status of Aboriginal health and wellbeing among Aboriginal people today can be looked at in terms of Aboriginal history and European invasion. The continuous effects of European invasion inevitably affected the lives of hundreds and thousands of Aboriginal people. These effects are evident in our society today. The National Inquiry into Black Deaths in Custody highlights a series of recommendations that refer to the betterment of Aboriginal health, with most still needing to be implemented. The health of Indigenous Australians is of third world standard in this country, and its not just an Aboriginal issue, it’s a political one. Allan Sumner Reference: Reed and Trompt, 1991, The Health Of Aboriginal Australia, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Group (Australia) Pty Ltd. Reynolds, Henry 1987 (Frontier) page 167, Allen Unwin Australia Pty Ltd. The Royal Commission into Black Deaths in Custody, 1991, AGPS, Canberra Three Years On, Implementation of Commonwealth Government Responses to the Recommendations of the Royal Commission into Black Deaths in Custody, Vol 2, pages 491 – 534. World Health Organisation, 1978, Primary Health Care: Report of the International conference of primary health care, Alma-Ata, USSR 6-12 September, WHO.

Planning & Property Development- Development Appraisal Essay

Planning & Property Development- Development Appraisal - Essay Example Projects are also underway to develop high speed train links between London and Europe to the midland and northern cities of England. There is a rich and diverse presence of flora and fauna around but there are currently no tree preservation orders at the site. The site has also been used for cement works (currently), tourism (currently), agricultural purposes (1800s), canal warehouses (1935s), and canals and railways (1840s). There site also the boasts the presence of historical sites (museums and galleries), entertainment and leisure facilities, a shopping complex and hotels. All these amenities are within close proximity to one another and also in the city centre where the main attractions are located. The site is in a flood warning area and therefore due caution must be taken when putting up structures on the site. It is however, very accessible through the excellent public transport links which include bus, train and even cycling routes. The highest traffic volume is recorded by commercial vans and lorries. There is also a short supply of off-street parking as evidenced by fully parked spots at both sides in the surrounding roads. The site also enjoys legal access to the nearby warehouse, Fazeley street properties and also into the cement works. The site also enjoys the public right of way on the canal towpath. The objective is to use the site as a yardstick for the development options it provides. After this, those options will also be appraised financially by using appropriate financial methods. The financial appraisal method selected for this exercise is the traditional residue site value (RSV) budget (Guy 2002, pg. 43). Although financial data has not been provided, this wil l not be a hindrance to a recommendation on which development option is the best for Mr. Brown’s estate. Financial appraisal will be based on factors like finance charges, design period, rental fees, yield, plot ratio, letting

Professional Organizations Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Professional Organizations Paper - Essay Example like a labor union. Most learned societies require certain level of experience, qualifications, accreditations and references for acquiring professional status in a particular discipline. If one is pursuing nursing profession as career then joining American Nursing Association would be an excellent decision. Because it’s about professionalism ANA membership differentiate one among other nursing practitioners, giving industry recognition of one’s skills and experience apart from benefits depicted below: American Nurses Association (ANA) is the only oldest and largest full service organization of nurses having over 2.9 million registered members and 54 constituent members associations since 1911. ANA is truly a voice of nurses by promoting highly professional practice standards, publicizing positive view of nursing in addition to protecting nurses in workplace. It firmly tries to influence Congress and other regulatory agencies on health care issues affecting citizens. (About ANA, 2008) With the advent of Internet and advances in information technology along with the society’s publications, journals and conferences ANA platform gives nurses an opportunity to speak on current and imminent health issues. These thoughts reach at larger scale through ANA’s mutual relationships with other organisations, which help nurses to better prepare for the ever changing needs of profession and patients. Apart from credentialing members in specialized areas of work, American Nurses Association sincerely fosters legislations for the advancement and recognition of the nursing line of work and of those who are connected to this profession. As a leader in profession American Nurses Association not only advocates members’ rights and interests but it also makes sure that each member is governed by professional code of practice and standards and the