Health of Australias Indigenous People Essay Example

Health of Australias Indigenous People Essay Example Health of Australias Indigenous People Paper Health of Australias Indigenous People Paper Essay Topic: The Healers The health of Australia’s Indigenous peoples is documented to be of third world standard. This paper identifies and highlights the factors that influence Aboriginal health and wellbeing. It explores and analyses how Aboriginal health, as a reflection of the broader social, economic, political and environmental factors, is influenced by colonialism, not just historically but as a living legacy. It discusses the continuing influence of colonialism in Aboriginal health policy and practice and how this has been an obstacle to Aboriginal health improvement. Strategies for health improvement, guided by the principle of self-determination and primary health care are discussed. Consideration is given to the voices of Aboriginal Health Workers on Aboriginal health issues and the importance of those voices as an expression of self-determination. The negative influences of colonialism still exist today. Broome (1994 pg 23) states; â€Å"the meeting of two people from different cultures is bound to be marked by misunderstanding†. The nature of exchanges and responses of Europeans and Indigenous Australians happened as a gradual process throughout the early 1800’s. The processes of colonisation had such an impact on those already here. It is only now, that non-indigenous Australians are starting to understand the breadth and magnitude of this process. The notion of Terra Nullius was created and the great Southland was considered wasteland, unoccupied and belonging to no one. Reynolds (1987 pg 167) says, ‘Some settlers resolved the contradictions concerning the place of the Aborigines in European society by assuming that Australia had been before 1788, ‘waste and uncultivated’, a terra nullius or land without owners’. Despite this common belief, there was immediate resistance by Aboriginal people. Where former history was once of passive agreement and welcoming to the foreshores, history records the violent confrontations between Indigenous people and the colonialists with the overwhelming brutality of all but few of the new arrivals. It is not possible to comprehend the current status of Aboriginal Health and wellbeing without first acknowledging the legacies and treatment of Aboriginal people in this country since European invasion. There are many arguments for and against the notion that Aboriginal Australia was never invaded and that it was only a process of colonisation. Some argue that European colonisation was an act of genocide and was in fact an invasion with the intention to take over and repopulate Aboriginal Australia. Reynolds (cited in Reed and Trompt, 1991 page 5) says that ‘in addition to killing ‘twenty thousand blacks before federation’ and many more in the twentieth century as the frontier moved north and west in the Northern Territory and Western Australia), the conquerors launched three pronged attack on the health and welfare of Aborigines’. The first fleet brought with it, a cargo of disease that Aboriginal people had not experienced and diseases such as scurvy, mumps and typhus killed large numbers of Aboriginal people. Reed and Trompt (1991 page 5) suggest that Europeans ‘introduced new diseases, some immediately fatal, others fatal in the long term’. Further, ‘taking away ancestral land, thus causing psychological illness and spiritual despair’; and ‘by herding Aborigines into small reserves and settlements, destroying their healthy lifestyle and substituting conditions and diet poorer that those of the poorest newcomers’. To understand the impact on ones health, it’s important to conceptualise the meaning of health and what it means to have a ‘healthy lifestyle’. The Macquarie Dictionary (1993 pg 189) defines the meaning of health as (1. ‘ Soundness of body; Freedom from disease or ailment’) or (2. ‘The general condition of the body or mind’). Western medicine tends to use a disease model for treating patients with more activity centred on a particular illness or focus on a part of a body that is abnormal. The World Health Organisation defines health as; â€Å"Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity†. In other words, it is not just the absence of sickness and disease, but a complete state of physical, mental, social wellbeing’. One could argue that this definition does not cover the aspect of spiritual wellbeing. Spiritual wellbeing or ‘traditional healing’ plays an integral role in Aboriginal health today and is only now recognised and practiced by health professions across the state. Certain members of an Aboriginal community are often referred to as traditional healers. In many Aboriginal communities across Australia there are people who are seen to have magical powers. They have the ability to ‘sing’ someone, causing serious illness and even death. On the other hand, it can also be used to heal and bring someone out of sickness and infirmity. ‘More recently, greater understanding of the sociomedical theories of the Aboriginal healing system illuminate better the role of the traditional healer. In Aboriginal communities, healers are individuals who possess healing and divination powers which can be used for the benefit of the community’. (Reed and Trompt, 1991, page 313) The social and cultural dislocation experienced by Aboriginal people has indefinably had a profound effected on Aboriginal peoples mental well being. The word powerlessness and hopelessness comes to ones mind when consideration is given to the destruction that came from ‘European invasion’. The rippling effects of ‘European invasion’ can be seen today. One would only have to read the newspapers and textbooks to see such effects. These effects however, could be viewed as stresses that lead to mental ill health. Most stresses that lead to mental health are also economic. Most mental disorders have their highest prevalence in the lowest socioeconomic class. Research gives evidence that high proportions of Aboriginal population live in low socioeconomic or marginalised regions. Reed and Trompt (1991, page 249) says ‘The stress experienced by Aboriginal communities has been attributed to factors such as the marginal social and economic status of most Aboriginal communities’. It could then be argued that Aboriginal people as a whole experience a much lower standard of living than other Australians. Economic stress can lead to psychological stress. For instance, high unemployment, or rather, a lack of significant experience, extreme poverty, severe housing shortages, family violence, high crime rates, sexually transmitted diseases, alcoholism and malnutrition are all contributing factors to ones ill-health. As mentioned earlier, it is important to recognise Aboriginal health from social view. A social view of health is embedded within the Primary Health Care philosophy. It alters its focus to recognise the environment in which a person lives. The social view of health recognises that if people are poor, are living in an unhealthy environment or have no power over their lives, they will continue to get sick, no matter how many hospitals are built. While Aboriginal people in Australia have been setting a benchmark in Aboriginal medical services, other people throughout the world have been looking at different ways to provide health care. They have been realising that health services were only providing adequate care for those people who had power and money. Millions of poor, homeless or powerless people throughout the world were sick or dying because their needs were not being met. In 1978, the World Health Organisation held a conference on health in Alma-Ata in the USSR. People from 134 nations, including Australia, met to talk about their experiences and ways to make people healthier. They decided to call this new approach ‘Primary Health Care’. Out of this conference came a document called the ‘Declaration of Alma-Ata’. The Alama-Ata declaration talked about what Primary Health Care is and how changes could be made to health services around the world to improve health. The delegates at the Alama-Ata conference stated that ‘health is a basic human right’. The declaration called for a different approach to health and for health care to give equal share of health resources to all people. In 1989 the National Aboriginal Health Strategy was released and endorsed by all health and Aboriginal Affairs ministers. It was the biggest and most comprehensive report into Aboriginal health that had ever been undertaken. Its overall aim was to work towards increasing the access of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People to health services by the year 2000. It strongly supported the role of Aboriginal Health Workers and the development of Primary Health care services in Aboriginal communities. The report recognised that the most successful services are those that are controlled by the community rather than by government departments. Another policy response was the Royal Commission into Black Deaths in Custody, (1991, AGPS, Canberra) This â€Å"Royal Commission† was set up to investigate why so many Aboriginal people die in jail and police stations. In doing so it collected much information on the physical and mental health and living conditions of Aboriginal people. Several recommendations were aimed at improving the current health services and acknowledging the importance of Aboriginal Health Professionals. Both the National Aboriginal Health Strategy and The Royal Commission into Black Deaths in Custody reports have been criticised, for although they identify many problems, few changes have occurred. It is one thing to come up with recommendations; it’s how you implement them that really counts. It takes more than Government policies to affect change, community attitude and commitment are fundamental to social change. One could ask, who determines whether or not a recommendation has been implemented Successfully, and how is it reviewed to keep its status in a western dominant culture. Money does not change the way people relate to one another nor does it rule out hidden racism. One might implement all the recommendations in the Black Deaths in Custody report, but it still doesn’t change peoples negative opinions and attitudes toward Aboriginal people. Aboriginal people have been fighting for Social Justice for years and it’s still a major priority for the community as well as other human service workers. Human service workers can play a key role in bringing about change. The secret often lays in the principles of community development. Taking community action is a way that empowers a community. Community development is a tool that can be used to bring social change. Aboriginal people have had decades of change (â€Å"injustices†) being forced upon them. The only real way for change to be constructive today is for it to come from and involve Aboriginal people. Consensus building, empowerment, participation and social movement are all community development principles that are important in creating positive social change and addressing social justice issues. Self-determination and empowerment means having power over resources, decision making, relationships, and information. It is with this power, Aboriginal people are only now, starting to carve out a pathway for the next generation. My findings show that early history and views of Aboriginal people have influenced the way in which Aboriginal people are viewed and treated today. Decisions made in life are based on what is known or perceived as being the correct answer. Thus many decisions and views of Aboriginal people today are learned through education and information from past history. These views and decisions have disadvantaged Aboriginal people over the years, but they are also key factors in unlocking the answer to addressing past injustices. Prejudices and racial discrimination issues are often seen as issues that compound on the social wellbeing of Aboriginal people, thus making it harder to access services and maintain positive self-esteem and image. There are so many myths and beliefs about Aboriginal people that influence our service delivery today in both government and non-government sectors. Views and perceptions of early history linger in our society today because of ignorance. The status of Aboriginal health and wellbeing among Aboriginal people today can be looked at in terms of Aboriginal history and European invasion. The continuous effects of European invasion inevitably affected the lives of hundreds and thousands of Aboriginal people. These effects are evident in our society today. The National Inquiry into Black Deaths in Custody highlights a series of recommendations that refer to the betterment of Aboriginal health, with most still needing to be implemented. The health of Indigenous Australians is of third world standard in this country, and its not just an Aboriginal issue, it’s a political one. Allan Sumner Reference: Reed and Trompt, 1991, The Health Of Aboriginal Australia, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Group (Australia) Pty Ltd. Reynolds, Henry 1987 (Frontier) page 167, Allen Unwin Australia Pty Ltd. The Royal Commission into Black Deaths in Custody, 1991, AGPS, Canberra Three Years On, Implementation of Commonwealth Government Responses to the Recommendations of the Royal Commission into Black Deaths in Custody, Vol 2, pages 491 – 534. World Health Organisation, 1978, Primary Health Care: Report of the International conference of primary health care, Alma-Ata, USSR 6-12 September, WHO.

Planning & Property Development- Development Appraisal Essay

Planning & Property Development- Development Appraisal - Essay Example Projects are also underway to develop high speed train links between London and Europe to the midland and northern cities of England. There is a rich and diverse presence of flora and fauna around but there are currently no tree preservation orders at the site. The site has also been used for cement works (currently), tourism (currently), agricultural purposes (1800s), canal warehouses (1935s), and canals and railways (1840s). There site also the boasts the presence of historical sites (museums and galleries), entertainment and leisure facilities, a shopping complex and hotels. All these amenities are within close proximity to one another and also in the city centre where the main attractions are located. The site is in a flood warning area and therefore due caution must be taken when putting up structures on the site. It is however, very accessible through the excellent public transport links which include bus, train and even cycling routes. The highest traffic volume is recorded by commercial vans and lorries. There is also a short supply of off-street parking as evidenced by fully parked spots at both sides in the surrounding roads. The site also enjoys legal access to the nearby warehouse, Fazeley street properties and also into the cement works. The site also enjoys the public right of way on the canal towpath. The objective is to use the site as a yardstick for the development options it provides. After this, those options will also be appraised financially by using appropriate financial methods. The financial appraisal method selected for this exercise is the traditional residue site value (RSV) budget (Guy 2002, pg. 43). Although financial data has not been provided, this wil l not be a hindrance to a recommendation on which development option is the best for Mr. Brown’s estate. Financial appraisal will be based on factors like finance charges, design period, rental fees, yield, plot ratio, letting

Professional Organizations Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Professional Organizations Paper - Essay Example like a labor union. Most learned societies require certain level of experience, qualifications, accreditations and references for acquiring professional status in a particular discipline. If one is pursuing nursing profession as career then joining American Nursing Association would be an excellent decision. Because it’s about professionalism ANA membership differentiate one among other nursing practitioners, giving industry recognition of one’s skills and experience apart from benefits depicted below: American Nurses Association (ANA) is the only oldest and largest full service organization of nurses having over 2.9 million registered members and 54 constituent members associations since 1911. ANA is truly a voice of nurses by promoting highly professional practice standards, publicizing positive view of nursing in addition to protecting nurses in workplace. It firmly tries to influence Congress and other regulatory agencies on health care issues affecting citizens. (About ANA, 2008) With the advent of Internet and advances in information technology along with the society’s publications, journals and conferences ANA platform gives nurses an opportunity to speak on current and imminent health issues. These thoughts reach at larger scale through ANA’s mutual relationships with other organisations, which help nurses to better prepare for the ever changing needs of profession and patients. Apart from credentialing members in specialized areas of work, American Nurses Association sincerely fosters legislations for the advancement and recognition of the nursing line of work and of those who are connected to this profession. As a leader in profession American Nurses Association not only advocates members’ rights and interests but it also makes sure that each member is governed by professional code of practice and standards and the

Why did Qatar Win the FIFA World Cup IN 2022 Essay

Why did Qatar Win the FIFA World Cup IN 2022 - Essay Example The pinnacle of this beautiful game is the FIFA World Cup, which is held once every four years. As billions of people love this game, it is not easy for a country to win the hosting rights of a FIFA World Cup. It happens so rarely that many people only get to see the FIFA World Cup played on their home soil once during their lifetimes. To decide which country has the right to play at a world cup, all of the countries play qualifying matches against each other in the preceding three years. From this, thirty-two teams get to go and play in the greatest show on earth. Qatar has a developing interest in football because of its popularity among its youth. Football is just one of the things that Qatar is trying to use to expose itself on the world’s stage. Because of its vast wealth, the Qatari government has the objective of getting as many people as possible to learn about Qatar. This is done through festivals, scientific  conferences, and sporting festivals, of which the FIFA W orld Cup is the most prestigious. It is very clear that not just any country can win the hosting rights of the FIFA World Cup. FIFA has very strict criteria that potential host countries must abide by in order to be able to host the cup. Whenever a world cup is hosted, FIFA demands that its laws must override any local laws. This has proved to be a problem with the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil. The FIFA secretary general, Jerome Valcke, has recently said: â€Å"Either we do (the Cup) together or we will never manage it (Murphy, 2011). Some of these requests include the price of match tickets, penalties for counterfeit goods, and banning the sale of certain alcohol brands in the stadiums. Also, because of the magnitude of the event, the country that wins the hosting rights must provide adequate security  for all the players and fans. Hospitals, hotels, and food are some of the major logistical requirements that need to be taken care of. Because the aim of the event is to make as much money for football as possible, the host country is required to have a certain number of large stadia so that revenue from ticket sales will be high. One of the goals of FIFA is to publicize football all around would and to assist poorer countries that rarely get the chance to participate in such an event. FIFA thinks of football as a global game, and that is why it wants to take the game to new places. Every region  of the world  has already  organized  the FIFA World Cup at least once. The Middle East is the last major region yet to have hosted FIFA’s most prestigious event. Quite a few people predicted that it would be too difficult for Qatar to win the hosting rights for the FIFA World Cup compared to the rival bids of the United States of America and Australia. There were many reasons why this was thought to be so. First of all, Qatar is a hot country. FIFA has a limit on what heat is considered to be okay to play football in, and Qatar’s climate is w ell above this range (Marcus, 2010). Also, geographical area  of  Qatar is very small when compared with other large countries. In addition, the Middle East is not considered to be a safe place for tourists. Many Western governments warn their citizens who travel in the region simply because of the level of violence that is associated with the area. The latest political protests in countries such as Syria, Egypt, and Libya have shown that things can get out of hand very quickly. On the other hand, the Qatari government used this disadvantage and pleaded that the FIFA World Cup could help to unite the divided region. Also, to alleviate foreign concerns, the Qatari bid team promised to install air

Global Positioning System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Global Positioning System - Essay Example The system calculates the position of the receiver by Triangulation method, which is similar to manner in which a seismologist locates position of an earthquake epicentre using arrival time of seismic waves. When distance from one satellite is measured, the position gives us radius of a sphere. Similar measurement from another satellite gives another sphere intersecting the first in an overlapping region of a circle. The third measurement gives another sphere intersecting the circle at two points. Now one of the two points can be eliminated by either a fourth measurement, or due to unreasonable location or speed. Thus we have an accurate position of the GPS receiver. This position can be determined by just two measurements at sea level due to a well defined datum, and software assisted elimination of unreasonable datum. Now with known speed of signal and extremely accurate time keeping, the distance from the satellites can be calculated accurately. With more than four satellites normally visible at any given time, position calculated becomes more accurate with each additional satellite. Satellite Configuration Geometry causes the position information to be suspect due to position of satellites themselves, if they are bunched together the position accuracy will suffer negatively and if they are more or less well spread out in space, the accuracy is much better. This aspect is called Dilution of Position (DOP). GPS Signa Limitations and Future of GPS There are some inherent limitations of the GPS as given below: GPS Signal Reception. Accurate functioning of a GPS receiver requires at least four GPS satellites. These signals cannot penetrate water or soil. Hence, GPS cannot be used for underwater marine navigation or underground surveys like mines or tunnels. Similarly, in areas of skyscrapers or high surrounding terrain, the number of visible satellites or signal strength can fall below acceptable strength hampering GPS functioning. GPS Signal Integrity Monitoring. Since the datum for all calculations is GPS satellite, wrong satellite positions or wrong range measurements from satellites can be potentially disastrous. Thus GPS Integrity Channel (GIC) and Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) are two schemes to accurately monitor integrity of signal information and warn the receiver whenever a conflict situation exists. GPS Signal Accuracy. A GPS receiver normally measures time taken for a signal to arrive at the receiver and converts it into range information. This measurement can be corrupted in many ways called collectively as User Equivalent Range error (UERE). These are corrected by directly deducting the known error from the calculations or reduce these errors by changing the way we make measurements. Uncorrected errors creep into the calculations causing different kinds of inaccuracies or errors affecting performance of the receiver. The future looks good with intense competition among world players to have their own GPS, mainly due to security aspirations. Russia, Europe and Japan are currently in advanced stage of system development/testing and many other regional countries are thinking about their own GPS. This would also lead to better accuracy and world wide acceptance of GPS for commercial and city use. The advantages would be better prices, more redundancy especially in the field of aviation and extensive market penetration due to hand held ground based GPS. The

Collective Happiness And Individual Happiness

Collective Happiness And Individual Happiness Happiness is the concern both to the public and the philosophers. But the contradiction of individual happiness and the collective happiness is always the argument in many theories. In the view of Utilitarianism, collective happiness should be in the most significant status. In order to achieve this aim, it is worthy to sacrifice the minoritys individual happiness. But whether that is the most efficient and effective way? And in such a circumstance, whether the individual happiness can be fulfilled? The essay is talking about that under the points of Utilitarianism; the social aim is to achieve a greatest happiness for a greatest number of people. And according to this guide, as long as the action can lead to a good outcome, this action should be agreed and protected, even that is an action of killing innocent people. However, to be a human being living in such a society; the individual happiness cannot be remained because of the demand from the whole society. On the other hand, the individual happiness is the personal business which did not related with the collective happiness according to Chuang Tzu. The changes happened in outside world, no matter good or bad, are just the nature course of development. The individual wills and power cannot change it at all. The theory of Utilitarianism is talking to achieve the collective happiness, while Chuang Tzu focused on the individual happiness. But both of them are too extremely to peruse the one and abandon the other one. However there is no an original contradiction between these two happiness. The crux in it is the different understanding of the concept of collective happiness as well as the freedom to choose a happy life for individuality. In summary, there is no conflict between the collective happiness and individual happiness, and the freedom to choose constitute a part of human happiness, which will in turn help construct a happy society. The case of two patients According to the points from John Harris (1975), let us support that organ transplant procedures have been perfected; in such circumstances if two dying patients could be saved by organ transplants then, and these two patients named Y needs a new heart and Z needs a new lung. If a doctor cannot save the patients because of no spare organs in stock, no one will blame the doctor. If there are no spare organs in stock and none otherwise available, the doctors have no choice; they cannot save their patients and so must let them die. In this case we would be disinclined to say that the doctors are in any sense the cause of their patients deaths. (Harris, 1975) But if a doctor didnt save the patients in the situation of that there are other organs available. Everyone will criticize the doctor for his activity just like he has shot the patients dead. If surgeons have the requisite organs in stock and no other needy patients, but nevertheless allow their patients to die, we would be inclined to say, and be justified in saying, that the patients died because the doctors refused to save them. (Harris, 1975) These situations always happen in reality; everyone will make decisions and make some judgments following the common sense. But supposing that patients Y and Z own a chance to argue for their lives, they insist that the doctor should kill another healthy people to get the new organs for them. Although obviously that breaks the law, it is really a reasonable account in the side of the patients. They point out that if just one healthy person were to be killed his organs could be removed and both of them be saved. We and the doctors would probably be alike in thinking that such a step, while technically possible, would be out the question. (Harris, 1975) In the whole process, all of the steps seem to be justifiable. But we can find the contradiction in the difference between killing and letting die. The analysis of this case from the view of utilitarianism There are three core ideas in the theory of utilitarianism; the first one is the consequentialism. According to this first core idea, consequences are the unique standard to determine whether the activities are right or wrong. Therefore, killing people will become an action can be considered for the correct reason. There are a great many people believe that whether an action is right or wrong depends upon its consequences. So what makes something like killing another person wrong is that it is an act with a very bad consequence. (Driver, 2006) Back to the case of those two patients, the doctor killing a healthy people for the reason to save another two persons. The purpose of killing is to save life, so that the action of killing people is totally right and necessary. And in the view of utilitarianism, it suggests that we should do the things to purchase the best consequence which will have the best effects for the most people in the collectivity. Following this logic, doctor should and must kill the third the one to maintain the lives of his two patients because the number of two is greater than one. Saving two lives is meaningful to lead a good consequence, and killing one people to save another two is worthy. On the other hand, the principle of utility from the view of Bentham is also the basic of the theory utilitarianism. And both law and the individuals actions should be scrutinized according to this principle. By the principle of utility is meant that principle which approves of every action whatever, according to the tendency which it appears to have augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question; orà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦to promote or to oppose that happiness. (Driver, 2006) As the result, happiness or pleasure is the basic good in this theory, and it is also the intrinsic value; but what has intrinsic disvalue is pain-that is the basic bad. (Driver, 2006) And according the view from Bentham, the pleasure or happiness can be measured along with the following parameters: Purity (how much pain is accompanied by it); Intensity (degree of pleasure); Duration (how long it will last); Fruitfulness (ability to produce further pleasure); Likelihood of any act to produce it (probability of an actions bringing about the expected consequence.) (Driver, 2006) Back to the two patients case again, using the elements to calculate that whether it will lead to a pleasure or a pain. Purity Intensity: although one life will be lose in the process to save the two patients, but the pleasure of the two patients alive is great than the pain to lost one life. Whats more, saving the two lives, their lives will be extended by sacrificing the other one, and they can create more happiness and pleasure in the rest of lives, which is what they expect. Therefore the other elements are totally matched. Under the logic of utilitarianism, a doctor killing a healthy and innocent people to save his patients is the action can be calculated to achieve the greatest good for the greatest number of people and avoid the pain. We can treat this case happened in a society which just has four persons-the two patients, the doctor as well as the healthy and innocent people. However this situation can be extended to the real society. Support that the whole society is a big machine which was consisted of many different components. Once some components were destroyed, and sacrificed the other one can fix these problems, we should absolutely abandon this one to maintain the whole. That is the reason in the utilitarianism to scarify the minority to achieve the majoritys happiness or pleasure. That will also construct a good society as Bentham described. A good society is constructed according to the logic of utilitarianism The definition of a good society Human being always consider to build a good society in which each people can perform his/her strengths in a professional scope; and then the society will be developed and consolidated in a high degree cooperation. For instance, a man who has talent in learning and running, but his ability of learning is better than running, while he like running more than learning. As the result, in order to make the best effect to the society and earn the most for him, this man should stay in university to be a professor rather than take part in the Olympic Game to be an athlete. From the view of utilitarianism, that is the most efficient and effective way to fulfill the aim to build a good society. Because everyone in the society will have their own talent, as long as people can be in a status which is match with their strengths, that will make the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Otherwise, live in the circumstance like that; people can earn their most happiness or pleasure. Back to the choice of that man, if he prefers an athlete to a professor, that will diminish the positive effect to the society and go against the principle of utility. But there may be a contradiction between the individuals strength and the personal choice. Maybe someones favorites are not the things which he is good at. That is a dilemma for us-whether to choose the favorite or the strength? Following the logic of Utilitarianism, we should choose to develop in the scope of our strength rather than our favorite, because that will contribute to the collectivity, and construct a good society. The human being living in such a society Living in such a good society, everyone will have their own status, just like a component working in a big machine. Although it will make the machine work smoothly, it also makes the component lose its existence value. Because when there are some new or more valuable components appear, or other parts have some problems which need the component to scarify to fix, this single one will be put away. That will be ok in a machine, but talking about the reality, it will produce lots of social problems. Also use that man as an example; he is good at learning and running, and he should choose to be a professor because he is more talent in learning than running. In order to make the society gain the maximum happiness, he have to spent all his time in learning but not any other things. This is acceptable in Utilitarianism, as well as the view from consequentialism. Although it will lead to a good consequence, the individual engage in it will become a component working in the big machine which represents the collectivity, and lose his personality, but just passively contribute himself. Give an example about that, the man spent his life to study and finally became a professor to make a greatest happiness for the collectivity, but he know nothing except learning. If he is replaced by others or there is no need of professors for the further development, this man will be abandoned because of the principle of utility. Whats more, though this mans favorite is running, but for the purpose to achieve the aim of a good society, he have to choose to learn as his life career. And that is the individuals cost for the good society. But we have to ask whether that is the unique definition of a good society? And whether there must be a contradiction between a good society and personal choice as well as individual development? Personal happiness in the view of individuality from Chuang Tzu Relative happiness and absolute happiness According to Chuang Tzus theory about individuality, happiness can be divided into two different concepts; the first one is relative happiness while the other one is absolute happiness. Relative happiness will come true when someone follows ones nature which is various from different individuals. This happiness is non-controllable because it depends on the circumstance which including nature environment as well as human condition. Therefore, each ones happiness is unique, no one should impose his or her likes and dislikes on others. Happiness is relative to the nature of each being: what may be happiness for the marquis is not the necessarily happiness for a bird; what is happiness for the duck is not happiness for the crane. (Imamichi, Wong, Liu, 1998) However there are many ways in which freedom can be obstructed, for the reason that ones happiness is not always within ones own control. On the other hand, although the relative happiness is out of individuals control, human being can also pursue the absolute happiness. The general conditions to achieve this goal is that we have proper understanding of the nature of things as well as unaffected by external things or changes as it not dependent upon them. In a word, that required us to follow the nature, but identify the nature firstly. There is another line of Taoist thought, however, which emphasizes the relativity of the nature of things and the identification of man with the universe. To achieve this identification, man needs knowledge and understanding of still a higher level, and the happiness resulting from this identification is really absolute happiness. (Fung, 1960) According to Chuang Tzu, there are two ways to achieve the absolute happiness, that is the forget(à ¥Ã‚ ¿Ã‹Å") and understand(à ¥Ã…’-), and that is also the attitude to the outside world. This attitude insists the external factors are not regarded as significant. As a result we will not be affected by the changes of the world. Furthermore, changes, good or bad from the outside society are accepted as part of the natural course of development, so that the individual activities and happiness will not and should not be affected by the outside society. He is absolutely happy, because he transcends the ordinary distinctions of things. He also transcends the distinction between the self and the world, the me and the non-me. Therefore he has no self.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦He may rule the whole world, but his rule consists of just leaving mankind alone, and letting everyone exercise his own natural ability fully and freely. (Fung, 1960) In conclusion, Chuang Tzus theory insists that happiness is totally an individual business. If someones happiness has to depend on something, thats just a relative happiness, because this man cannot control or change his own relative happiness. However, in a society, everything is related with the nature development, therefore, the absolute happiness just can come true in the condition of staying alone and living far away from the collectivity. A contradiction or a combination There is an obvious diversity between the ideas in Utilitarianism and Chuang Tzu. The theory of Utilitarianism focuses on the collective happiness which can be extended to the individual scope. While according to the view from Chuang Tzu, individual happiness will be achieved by personal choose, but no related with the collective happiness and the outside world changing. Use the man talented in learning and running to explain the difference between these two theories. On the basis of Utilitarianism, even this man prefer running to learning, he still should choose to learn to be a professor for the reason that this will make the a greatest happiness for the whole society. But it ignores his individual happiness. Besides, according to the principle from Chuang Tzu, this man should prefer to be an athlete because of his talent and interested. Even his choice will make less happiness for the society than to be a professor; he should persist in it as usual. Because no matter the society become good or bad is the nature development for individual, this should not and cannot be influenced by the personal choice, ever worse to scarify the personal happiness to satisfy the social development. The theory of Utilitarianism treats the individual happiness and the collective happiness is completely a contradiction, and requires one to scarify itself to realize the other one. But from the points of Chuang Tzu, actually there is no relationship between individual and collectivity; individual person should be loyal to his or her interest and happiness and let alone the social development which is just the nature course. The first theory treats the individual happiness and collective happiness is entirety. But the collective happiness should be put on a more important status, and the individual persons living in it is just in the status to cooperate and service for the whole society. There is a separation in the process, once there is an interest conflict between them; the individual will be given up for certain. And that is the opposing view from Chuang Tzu; individual person and collectivity is totally different and irrelevant. Although this theory gives a specific definition about the individual happiness, it makes them separate from the whole society. And there is some objective voice for this theory. If an individual person lives outside the society, he or she will lose his or her social connection and social function. That makes the individual person cannot achieve his or her happiness without a specific social circumstances. Therefore, no matter describing these two kinds of happiness as a contradiction or treating them as two independent units, there is an alternative. But there is no original contradiction between two of them, the combination of them should be an appropriate way to be consider and achieve the win-win outcome. Conclusion Happiness cannot be calculated by adding the number of lives Happiness is the consequence what human being pursues for; but there is no a specific definition of happiness. In the case of those two patients, happiness means a greater number of lives and longer lives. As the result, it is worthy to sacrifice another one to save their lives. But that will bring out another problem. If these two patients are old people, even a successful organ transplant surgery can just give them a few years of life. And unfortunately, the doctor killed a young people to gain his organs. Whether it is still a happy ending of this case? It might of course be objected that it is likely that more old people will need transplants to prolong their lives than will the young, and so the scheme would inevitably lead to a society dominated by the old. (Harris, 1975) In the situation like that, the formula of happiness is not feasible. Although a greater number of lives will remain, there is another problem come along come with itwhether the number of lives will equal to the value which these lives can create? Does the productivity of elderly people correspond to the younger people? Obviously, human being cannot be measured by the value they create. No matter the number of life or the value of life can not represent the greatest happiness which the theory of Utilitarianism talking about. Because each people in the society are unique, the value of this life is incomparable. As the result, the happiness cannot be measured by the number of lives in a society. The freedom to choose constitutes a part of human happiness, which will in turn help construct a happy society. The freedom to choose is a part of personality as well as a part of individual happiness. In the case of those two patients, both the doctor and the innocent have no choice because of saving the two dying patients. That is the same with the talented man. Superficially the man has free choices, but under the requirement of a greatest happiness, actually this man can just choose to be a professor to create the most goods for the society. In a word, that is no choice. According to the view of the Chuang Tzu, the freedom of individual people should be protected because that did not relate to any other one or the outside world which is considered the nature course of development. Although both of the ideas from these two theories seem too extreme, they also can give us a concept about collective happiness and individual happiness. Thinking too much about the collective interest and happiness will make the individual lose their freedom to choose. This will construct a society in which the individual people have to shoulder a heavy burden, because he or she cannot freely plan his or her life, but have to follow the social demand. Or the people living in such a society will be the next one to be victims to sacrifice for the collective happiness that will make individual people live in a nervous circumstance. In addition, individual happiness cannot be achieved without interacting with others in the society. Because only in the society and the relationship among people can create the circumstance for the people to plan their lives and fulfill the individual happiness. There is no conflict between the individual happiness and the collective happiness The individual happiness and the collective happiness are closed connected; each of them cannot be come true without the other one. In general idea, a collective happiness is represented by the amount of wealthy and the quality of peoples life. But that is just one elements of happiness, the other one as well as the more significant one is the freedom choice of the individual person. Although the freedom choice of person may not maintain the wealthy of the whole society, it will guarantee the quality of life which has divers understanding of different people. Also using the talented man as an instance, if this man has the freedom to choose what he really wants but not to follow the demand of the society, this will lead him to reach the maximum individual happiness. If this man chooses to be an athlete and join in the Olympic Game, maybe he can never be a champion, but the process to achieve this dream is the greatest happiness for this man. Whats more, that is also the process to constitute the collective happiness. In a word, the freedom to choose and fulfill individual happiness can also construct a happiness society. The happiness here is so different from the general happiness. This happiness cannot be calculated by the number of lives and the amount of social wealthy, but was accumulated by the individual happiness. And that is also the most stable and developed happiness both to collectivity and individuality.

Freedom vs. Determination Essay -- comparison

Are we determined or are we free? This is a question that is hotly debated on both sides of the issue. Determinists would say that we, as humans, are determined through our society, religion, and, most of all, by our families. However, supporters of free will would have arguments for each of these same points in their favor. I say that no matter which way one approaches this subject one finds both, free will and determinism, in each of these arguments. Society, for one, can be seen as determining one's public behavior, moral responsibility, and how one is to survive in today's environment. So how does society determine these points? Well, that's simple. Public behavior is set by the limits of general decency, as well as, its conventional standard of politeness. Someone can't go outside without the proper clothing nor can they wear something that would be considered offensive in the view of society's dictation. "Good manners" and a pleasant demeanor are essential to one's dealings with others. Without them, you would surely be considered an outcast. The next aspect determined by society is that of moral responsibility. This point is held in high regard to the efficient functioning of society as a whole. To facilitate this purpose, we are bound to educate our children with the understanding of what is right and what is wrong. We instill in them that they will be held accountable for their actions and that there are consequences to each action. Lastly, in order to obtain the "necessities... ...lassics: American Historical Documents. Third Edition. Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier Enterprises Corporation, 1994. pp 180-198. Declaration of Independence. The Harvard Classics: American Historical Documents. Third Edition. Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier Enterprises Corporation, 1994. pp 150-155. Encarta: The Complete Interactive Multimedia Encyclopedia. "Sacred Koran." 1995 Edition. CD-ROM. Phoenix, Arizona: Microsoft Corporation, 1995. Huxley, Aldous. "Brave New World." Philosophy: A Literary and Conceptual Approach. Third Edition. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Incorporated, 1995. pp 242-247. New Catholic Translation Bible, The. Revised Edition. Nashville, Tennessee: Catholic Bible Press, 1987. Freedom vs. Determination Essay -- comparison Are we determined or are we free? This is a question that is hotly debated on both sides of the issue. Determinists would say that we, as humans, are determined through our society, religion, and, most of all, by our families. However, supporters of free will would have arguments for each of these same points in their favor. I say that no matter which way one approaches this subject one finds both, free will and determinism, in each of these arguments. Society, for one, can be seen as determining one's public behavior, moral responsibility, and how one is to survive in today's environment. So how does society determine these points? Well, that's simple. Public behavior is set by the limits of general decency, as well as, its conventional standard of politeness. Someone can't go outside without the proper clothing nor can they wear something that would be considered offensive in the view of society's dictation. "Good manners" and a pleasant demeanor are essential to one's dealings with others. Without them, you would surely be considered an outcast. The next aspect determined by society is that of moral responsibility. This point is held in high regard to the efficient functioning of society as a whole. To facilitate this purpose, we are bound to educate our children with the understanding of what is right and what is wrong. We instill in them that they will be held accountable for their actions and that there are consequences to each action. Lastly, in order to obtain the "necessities... ...lassics: American Historical Documents. Third Edition. Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier Enterprises Corporation, 1994. pp 180-198. Declaration of Independence. The Harvard Classics: American Historical Documents. Third Edition. Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier Enterprises Corporation, 1994. pp 150-155. Encarta: The Complete Interactive Multimedia Encyclopedia. "Sacred Koran." 1995 Edition. CD-ROM. Phoenix, Arizona: Microsoft Corporation, 1995. Huxley, Aldous. "Brave New World." Philosophy: A Literary and Conceptual Approach. Third Edition. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Incorporated, 1995. pp 242-247. New Catholic Translation Bible, The. Revised Edition. Nashville, Tennessee: Catholic Bible Press, 1987.